Relations of the ancient Russian state with neighbors. Ancient Russia and its neighbors - military history

Neighbors of Ancient RussiaIX – XIIcenturies: Byzantium, Slavic countries, Western Europa, Khazaria, Volga Bulgaria.

The Old Russian state arose on the trading the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" on the lands of the East Slavic tribes - the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Polyans, then covering the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polochans, Radimichi, Northerners. During its heyday (908 - 1132), the Old Russian state occupied a prominent place on the political map of Europe. The new political formation found its place in international relations rather difficult, but rather quickly got involved in them. Political influence grew as economic and military power strengthened, due to entry into the circle of Christian states. In the process of the formation of the state, neighbors played an important role. Consider:

The geographical position of the countries neighboring the Old Russian state;

The direction of relations between Kievan Rus and the states bordering on it;

Political and socio-economic relations of the Old Russian state that developed with neighboring countries.

South and South - East direction

From the southern and south-eastern side, Russia constantly encountered nomadic peoples represented by Turkic-speaking tribes - the Khazars and Bulgars, later with the Pechenegs and Polovtsians. Also in the south was Byzantium, which played a huge role in the formation and development of Russia. Russian-Byzantine relations IX - XI centuries. - these are peaceful economic, political, cultural ties, and sharp military clashes. On the one hand, Byzantium was a convenient source of military booty for the Slavic princes and their combatants. On the other hand, Byzantine diplomacy sought to prevent the spread of Russian influence in the Black Sea region, and then tried to turn Russia into a vassal of Byzantium, especially with the help of Christianization. At the same time, there were constant economic and political contacts. Evidence of such contacts is the existence of permanent colonies of Russian merchants in Constantinople, known to us from the agreement between Oleg and Byzantium (911). The agreement provided for preferential terms of trade for Russian merchants (trade duties were abolished, repairs of ships were provided, accommodation for the night), the solution of legal and military issues. Trade exchange with Byzantium is reflected in a large number of Byzantine items found on the territory of our country. After Christianization, cultural ties with Byzantium intensified. Russian squads, crossing the Black Sea on ships, raided the coastal Byzantine cities, and Oleg even managed to take the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople (in Russian - Tsargrad). Igor's campaign was less successful. The Russians crossed the Black Sea coast from the Bosporus to Paphlagonia. Igor's fleet was defeated by the fleet of parakimomen Patricius Theophanes. The second campaign against Byzantium took place in 944. It ended with an agreement that confirmed many of the provisions of the previous agreements of 907 and 911, but abolished duty-free trade.

In the second half of the X century. there is some Russian-Byzantine rapprochement. Olga's trip to Constantinople, where she was received on friendly terms by the emperor, strengthened relations between the two countries. Byzantine emperors sometimes used Russian squads for wars with their neighbors.

A new stage in Russia's relations with Byzantium and with other neighboring peoples falls on the reign of Svyatoslav, the ideal hero of Russian chivalry. Svyatoslav pursued an active foreign policy. He entered into a clash with the powerful Khazar Khaganate, which once levied tribute from the territory of Southern Russia. Already under Igor, in 913, 941 and 944, Russian warriors made campaigns against Khazaria, achieving a gradual release of the Vyatichi from paying tribute to the Khazars. Svyatoslav (964-965) dealt a decisive blow to the khaganate, defeating the main cities of the khaganate and capturing its capital, Itil. The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate led to the formation of the Tmutarakan Principality from Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula and to the liberation of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians from the power of the Khaganate, who after that formed their own state - the first state formation of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Kama regions.

The fall of the Khazar Khaganate and the advance of Russia in the Black Sea region caused concern in Byzantium. In an effort to mutually weaken Russia and Danubian Bulgaria, against which Byzantium pursued an aggressive policy, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus II Phocas suggested that Svyatoslav make a trip to the Balkans. Svyatoslav won a victory in Bulgaria and captured the city of Pereyaslavets on the Danube. This result was unexpected for Byzantium. There was a threat of unification into one state of the eastern and southern Slavs, with which Byzantium would not have been able to cope. Svyatoslav himself said that he would like to move the capital of his land to Pereyaslavets.

Quite a lot of news has been preserved about the foreign policy relations of the Bulgar Emirate with Russia and the ancient Russian principalities. Judging by the annals, peaceful cooperation between them was often violated by military clashes, which usually arose due to a discrepancy between the interests of the parties in the field of foreign trade.

During the 10th century, Kievan Rus organized four military campaigns against the Bulgar Emirate - in 977, 985, 994 and 997. The Bulgars did not take retaliatory actions.

The result of the campaign in 985 was the conclusion of a peace treaty between Russia and Bulgaria, which was calculated for eternity. The parties decided that "then there will be no peace between us, when the stone begins to float, and the hops begin to sink." Nevertheless, as we have just seen, small campaigns within Bulgaria continued.

Under 986 and 987 chroniclers report on the visit of the Bulgarian ambassadors-missionaries to Kyiv and Russian ambassadors to Bulgaria on the issue of choosing a faith on the eve of the adoption of a new religion by Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The Muslim faith offered by the Bulgars was not to Vladimir's liking, and he converted to Christianity.

From the 11th century Only three annalistic reports about the Bulgaro-Russian relations have come down. Two of them, relating to 1006 and 1024, speak of the conclusion of a trade agreement between Russia and the Volga Bulgaria and the delivery of wheat to the starving Suzdal people. In 1088, the Bulgars took Murom, because in those days there were robberies on the Volga and the Oka, and the Russians "robbed and beat many trading Bulgarians."

A whole series of military campaigns is noted in the chronicles in the 12th century. So, in 1107, the Bulgars came "to Suzdal with an army and surrounded the city and did a lot of evil." After 13 years, the campaign was undertaken by Yuri Dolgoruky, who "go to the Bulgarians and took a lot and a regiment of their victory." The chronicle report of 1152 is connected with the campaign of the Bulgars who attacked Yaroslavl. He made four military campaigns in the 60-80s. XII century Andrey Bogolyubsky, including twice to Bilyar, to Bulgar and other cities, to “many villages”.

At the beginning of the XIII century. the confrontation between the Volga Bulgaria and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued on trade routes. In 1205, Vsevolod Yurievich's campaign against the Bulgars took place, and in 1218 the Bulgars made a return campaign against Ustyug. Under 1220, the last large-scale campaign of Russian squads against the city of Oshel, which was burned and looted, was marked before the Mongol invasion. In the same years, the Bulgars made a number of persistent attempts "with a great prayer, and with many gifts and petitions" to conclude a peace treaty with the Russians, which was signed in 1224.

In 1228, the peace treaty between Bulgaria and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was extended for another six years. This was very important in view of the danger of an invasion by Mongol troops from the East hanging over the country.

Thus, the Bulgarian Emirate established equal trade contacts, maintained diplomatic relations with many near and far countries. The high economic potential of the state and the proper level of organization of military affairs made it possible to resist the attempts of neighbors to establish themselves on the Volga-Kama trade routes, to pursue an active foreign policy, in which not only diplomatic means were used.

To weaken Russian influence in Bulgaria, Byzantium used the Pechenegs. This Turkic nomadic people was first mentioned in the Russian chronicle under 915. Initially, the Pechenegs roamed between the Volga and the Aral Sea, and then, under pressure from the Khazars, they crossed the Volga and occupied the Northern Black Sea region. The main source of wealth for the Pecheneg tribal nobility was raids on Russia, Byzantium and other countries. Either Russia or Byzantium from time to time managed to “hire” the Pechenegs for attacks on the other side. So, during the stay of Svyatoslav in Bulgaria, they, apparently at the instigation of Byzantium, raided Kyiv. Svyatoslav had to urgently return to defeat the Pechenegs, but soon he again went to Bulgaria; there began a war with Byzantium. The Russian squads fought fiercely and bravely, but the Byzantine forces were too outnumbered. In 971, a peace treaty was concluded: Svyatoslav's squad got the opportunity to return to Russia with all their weapons, and Byzantium was satisfied with the promise of Russia not to attack.

On the way, on the Dnieper rapids, apparently having received a warning from Byzantium about the return of Svyatoslav, the Pechenegs attacked him. Svyatoslav died in battle, and the Pecheneg prince Kurya, according to chronicle legend, made a bowl out of Svyatoslav's skull and drank from it at feasts. According to the ideas of that era, this manifested, paradoxically as it may seem, respect for the memory of the fallen enemy: it was believed that the military prowess of the owner of the skull would go to the one who drinks from such a bowl.

A new stage of Russian-Byzantine relations falls on the reign of Vladimir and is associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Shortly before this event, the Byzantine emperor Basil II turned to Vladimir with a request to help the armed forces in suppressing the uprising of the commander Varda Foka, who captured Asia Minor, threatened Constantinople and claimed the imperial throne. In exchange for help, the emperor promised to marry his sister Anna to Vladimir. Vladimir's squad of 6,000 helped put down the uprising, and Varda Foka himself was killed.

However, the emperor was in no hurry with the promised marriage. This marriage was of great political importance. Just a few years earlier, the German emperor Otto II had failed to marry the Byzantine princess Theophano. Byzantine emperors occupied the highest place in the feudal hierarchy of the then Europe, and marriage to a Byzantine princess sharply raised the international prestige of the Russian state. In order to achieve the fulfillment of the terms of the agreement, Vladimir laid siege to the center of Byzantine possessions in the Crimea - Chersonese (Korsun) and took it. The emperor had to fulfill his promise. Only after that did Vladimir make the final decision to be baptized. Russia became on a par with the largest Christian powers of medieval Europe.

As mentioned earlier, the constant struggle of Ancient Russia had to be waged with nomads. Vladimir managed to establish a defense against the Pechenegs, however, their raids continued. In 1036, taking advantage of the absence of Yaroslav in Kyiv (he left for Novgorod), the Pechenegs laid siege to Kyiv. Yaroslav quickly returned and inflicted a severe defeat on the Pechenegs, from which they were never able to recover. They were forced out of the Black Sea steppes by other nomads - the Polovtsians.

Polovtsy (in other words - Kipchaks or Cumans) - also a Turkic people - back in the 10th century. lived in the territory of North-Western Kazakhstan. In the middle of the X century. Polovtsy moved to the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. After they ousted the Pechenegs, a huge territory came under their rule, which was called the Polovtsian steppe, or (in Arabic sources) Desht-i-Kipchak. It stretched from the Syr Darya and the Tien Shan to the Danube. For the first time, the Polovtsy are mentioned in Russian chronicles under 1054, and in 1061 the first clash with them took place: “When the Polovtsy came, they were the first to fight on the Russian land.” Second half of the 11th - 12th centuries - the time of the struggle of Russia with the Polovtsian danger.

Western direction

Simultaneously with Byzantium, Russia established political relations with Western Europe. The connections of the Old Russian state with other countries, in particular with the countries of Western Europe, were less intense and comprehensive than with the East. And, nevertheless, various contacts between Ancient Russia and Western Europe testify to the undoubted cultural interaction between these regions.

Since Russia in the pre-Mongolian period was not inferior in its cultural development to most countries of Western Europe, this interaction was quite equal. The affiliation of both regions to the Christian world contributed to the stabilization of this interaction, and the Orthodox Church did not interfere with this cultural communication in the pre-Mongolian period.

This position of Russia was reflected in the dynastic ties of the Russian princes. So, Yaroslav the Wise was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf Indigerda. Yaroslav's daughter - Anna was married to the French king Henry I, another daughter - Elizabeth became the wife of the Norwegian king Harald. The Hungarian queen was the third daughter - Anastasia. The granddaughter of Yaroslav the Wise - Eupraxia (Adelheida) was the wife of the German Emperor Henry IV. One of the sons of Yaroslav - Vsevolod was married to a Byzantine princess, the other son Izyaslav - to a Polish one. Among the daughters-in-law of Yaroslav were also the daughters of the Saxon margrave and Count Stadensky.

Relations with Western Europe became especially intense in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. Relations with the West were expressed in the fact that countries exchanged products of applied art, and as a result, certain technical skills.

The interaction of cultures was carried out through trade and through the gifts of embassies, through foreign craftsmen, who were often invited to Russia from Western Europe, most often from Germany. Russia also had lively trade relations with the German Empire. Even on the remote periphery of the Old Russian state, on the territory of present-day Moscow, was found dating back to the 11th century. a lead trade seal originating from some Rhenish city.

In Russia, such handicrafts of Western masters as bronze casting, bowls, jewelry, bone carving, including caskets, were common.

Items of ancient Russian arts and crafts, in turn, found their way to the West, many Russian products were found in the Scandinavian countries, in particular, in Gotland, they also reached Western Europe.

From the middle of the XI century. certain elements of Romanesque architecture, which dominated in the 11th - 13th centuries, began to penetrate into Russia. not only in Western Europe, but also in the whole cultural circle, which covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, as well as Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary - close neighbors of the Old Russian state.

However, this cultural interaction did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed cubic structure of temples.

The influence of the Romanesque style was manifested in the external design of individual buildings erected in Russia, such elements as arched belts, later groups of semi-columns and pilasters, sometimes with carved capitals and consoles, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals, and bizarre stone carvings on the outer surface were used in architecture. walls.

And, nevertheless, Russian stone-cutters preferred to depict secular subjects or cheerful motifs of “world harmony”, rather than the gloomy frightening pictures of the “Last Judgment”, hellish torment and cruel torture of saints that prevailed in the stone reliefs of Western European Romanesque cathedrals.

The cultural communication of Ancient Russia with the countries of Western Europe also went along the lines of literary and folklore ties. Information about distant Russia and Russians was reflected in Western European literature (in the song about Roland, in the song about the Nibelungs, not to mention the Scandinavian sagas). Folklore motifs associated with the image of Ilya Muromets were included in the German poem "Ortnit", one of the main characters of which is the king "Ilya the Russian".

Literary relationships can be traced in Western chronicles and Russian chronicles. Thus, there is a well-known parallel between the legend of the Primary Chronicle about the "calling of the Varangians" to Russia and the Anglo-Saxon legend about the calling of the Anglo-Saxons to Britain.

Cultural interaction between Russia and the West was also carried out through pilgrims and travelers, communication was also maintained through church relations. Before the division of churches in 1054, church relations were quite strong.

The common affiliation to Christianity united and opposed Christians to all other believers - pagans, Muslims. Intra-Christian differences were not yet sharply expressed; in Russia, Catholic embassies from the pope or the German emperor were received without much hostility.

Catholic churches operated in Kyiv, Smolensk, Pereyaslavl. In the prayer of the "Holy Trinity", which was used in Russia, the names of the saints Al-bapa and Botulf, who were revered only in England, sound.

Their names, apparently, were brought to Russia by the British who came there. In Novgorod, where there were several foreign "Varangian", i.e. Catholic, churches, they were visited by Novgorodians, who sometimes even baptized their children there.

However, after 1054, attempts by the papacy began to "convert" Russia to the Catholic faith. Especially after the defeat of Constantinople by the Western crusaders, as well as after the organization of the papacy in the 40s. 13th century "Crusades" to Russia, relations with the Catholic Church deteriorated.

This also affected cultural relations with the West. The cultural interaction of Russia with the West has become more limited than with Byzantium, but still left a certain mark on Russian culture.

The cultural influence of the West was reworked by local Russian traditions and later turned out to be organically included in the original culture of Ancient Russia.

So, the Old Russian state was one of the largest European powers and was in close political, economic and cultural relations with many countries and peoples of Europe and Asia. The Western European neighboring states had a significant influence on the formation of the state, but the Byzantine Empire played the most important role in the history of Russia at that time.

List of sources

Nazarenko A.V. Ancient Russia and the Slavs (Ancient States of Eastern Europe, 2007) / Institute of General History. - M .: Russian Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Science, 2009.

Fortunatov V.V. History: textbook. allowance - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012.

In the ninth century among the Eastern Slavs, a class society arises and a state appears. The initial period of the formation of the state is not sufficiently reflected in the sources, since writing is distributed after the creation of the state.

Norman theory Many historians in the XVIII - XIX centuries. adhered to the so-called Norman "theory, which ascribes to the Normans - the Scandinavian Vikings (in Russia they were called Varangians) - the creation of the Russian state. The basis for this theory was the chronicle story about the calling to reign in 862 of the Varangian princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor.

The Novgorod chronicle reports that in the 9th century the legendary Prince Gostomysl gathered a military squad and drove the Varangians across the sea who attacked the Slavs. Gostomysl ruled the Slavs for a long time. Under him, all the neighbors recognized the Slavs, he himself imposed tribute on many.

According to legend, Rurik at that time was the leader of one of the Varangian squads. He sailed along with his soldiers and two brothers Truvor and Sineus, agreed to protect the tribes that called him from enemies and reign according to the old custom and truth. Rurik put his brother Sineus in Beloozero, Truvor in Izborsk, and he himself remained in Novgorod. This city was built on the site of old Slavyansk, and since it was a new city, it was called Novgorod. Gradually this city became rich and famous.

Much of this legend is still unclear. Most historians consider Sineus and Truvor to be fictitious individuals. The historicity of Rurik is not rejected by a number of researchers.

There is nothing incredible in the very fact of calling foreign princes to reign. The early class state is always born in a sharp and bloody internecine struggle. One of the possible ways to stop mutual extermination could be to invite a third force, neutral in relation to the warring parties.

There is another possibility - the forcible seizure of power by the Varangians as an act of "voluntary" vocation. In any case, the chronicle text refers to the emergence of the Varangian dynasty in the Novgorod land, and not to the creation of a state in Russia.

Based on the logic of the legend itself, it can be noted that in order to be invited to reign, one had to already have this form of power. At the same time, it must be admitted that the Varangian squads played a certain role in the early history of Russia, but they constituted a smaller part of the emerging ruling class.

The controversy about Normanism sometimes escalated due to the fact that in Nazi Germany it was used as evidence of the inferiority of the Slavs and the belonging of the Germans (including the Normans) to the "master race".

However, today neo-Normanism dominates Western historiography, which does not deny the role of internal factors in the creation of the state in Russia, but somewhat exaggerates the role of the Normans in this process.

It is quite obvious that the East Slavic society in the 9th century. was in the state building stage. The chronicler tells about the tribal principalities - the early state formations that existed near the glades (where, according to the chronicle, the founder of Kiev, Kiy, was the first prince), the Drevlyans, the Dregovichi, the Polochans.

Old Russian princes

Rurik reigned for a short time. One day while hunting, he caught a cold, fell ill and died. The young son of Rurik Igor became the prince of the Slavs. While Igor was growing up, a relative of Rurik, Prince Oleg, the head of Rurik's squad, reigned.

The legend tells that during the life of Rurik two of his warriors Askold and Dir went to Constantinople (as the Slavs called the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople). On the way from Novgorod, Askold and Dir sailed along the Dnieper to Kiev. Seeing that they had a well-armed squad with them, the people of Kiev invited them to reign. Askold and Dir liked the beautiful city. They did not sail to Tsargrad, but remained in Kyiv. They reigned in Kyiv for several years.

They nevertheless went to Tsargrad, having gathered a large army. According to chronicle sources, this was the first campaign against Byzantium, committed in the 60s of the 9th century. This campaign ended in nothing, as the rising storm scattered the Russian boats across the sea. It is believed that between 860 and 867. The first international treaty "On Peace and Love" in the history of Russia was concluded with Byzantium.

According to the chronicle, Oleg, becoming the prince of Novgorod, gathering a large squad, which descended on the boats along the Dnieper to Kiev. He hid his army, and he himself went under the walls of the city and asked to tell Askold and Dir that a merchant from Novgorod was going to Constantinople and wanted to talk with the princes. When they left, Oleg told them: "You are not princes, you are not of a princely family. Here is Igor, the son of Prince Rurik." He then drew a hidden sword and killed them both.

Seeing how conveniently Kyiv is located, how rich, beautiful and reliable it is, Oleg transferred the capital from Novgorod to it, saying: "Let Kyiv be the mother of Russian cities." This was in 882. This date is conditional, it is the result of chronological calculations of the chroniclers of the XI - XII centuries.

The unification under the rule of one prince of Kyiv and Novgorod - two major centers of Eastern Slavism - was the most important stage in the development of ancient Russian statehood. If, before the capture of Kyiv by Oleg, we can talk about the existence of statehood among the East Slavic tribes, then from that moment we can talk about the creation of the Old Russian state.

Speaking about the emergence of the Old Russian state, it must be borne in mind that the state in the first place should be understood system of governing bodies and rights covering a certain territory. The emergence of the state is a natural stage in the development of society, which is at the stage of disintegration of the primitive tribal community. During this period, relations within the clan become more diverse, contacts are expanding not only between people, but also between tribes.

According to the chronicle, after the unification of Novgorod and Kiev, Oleg freed many Slavs from paying tribute to the Khazars. He subjugated almost all Slavic tribes from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathian Mountains. Dissenters forced to recognize themselves by force of arms.

At this time, many cities appeared in the Slavic lands. Usually they were built on the rivers along which one of the most important trade routes "from the Varangians to the Greeks" passed, that is, from the Scandinavian countries to Byzantium. Famous at that time were the cities of Novgorod on the Volkhov, Pskov on the Great, Polotsk on the Polot, Chernigov on the Desna, Smolensk and Kyiv on the Dnieper.

The Slavs considered war to be a noble trade. The cherished dream of every prince and his combatants was a campaign against Constantinople. Oleg gathered a huge squad from all the Slavic tribes and set off in 907 to Tsargrad. The sea was covered with the boats of the Oleg warriors, horrifying the inhabitants of the Byzantine capital. The frightened Greeks were afraid to join the battle and sued for peace, paying a large tribute in gold and fabrics, and signed an agreement on duty-free trade.

In memory of the victory, Oleg nailed his shield to the gates of Constantinople. In 911, a new treaty was signed with Byzantium, specifying a number of provisions of the treaty of 907.

Treaties between Russia and Byzantium established allied relations between the states. They determined the procedure and conditions for the entry of Russian warriors into the Byzantine service.

The treaties created favorable conditions for Russian merchants and gave them the right to trade duty-free. Byzantine campaigns were caused mainly by the desire of Russia to maintain or restore interrupted trade relations with Byzantium. That is why they usually ended with the signing of trade treaties.

After Oleg, the son of Rurik came to the throne of Kyiv Igor. The death of Oleg weakened the state. The tribe of the Drevlyans refused to pay tribute to the prince of Kiev, relying on the inexperience of the successor. From the outside, new enemies appeared - the Pechenegs. It was a nomadic people who occupied the Black Sea steppes and were at enmity with the Khazars. However, Igor proved his right to the prince's throne. He pacified the Drevlyans and imposed an even greater tribute on them; stopped the Pechenegs and even managed to use them to his advantage.

As the chronicle tells, Igor, like Oleg, also wanted to receive tribute from Constantinople. But his first campaign ended in failure. Greek ships met Russian boats in the sea and began to throw at them the so-called "Greek fire", previously unknown to the Russians ("Greek fire" is a combustible mixture of tar, sulfur, oil and saltpeter).

Igor lost many of his rooks and retreated. Two years later, he gathered a large squad and again set off on the boats to Constantinople. This time, the emperor of Byzantium did not take risks and paid tribute to Igor. It was in 944.

Igor died in 945 while collecting tribute from the Drevlyans. After collecting the tribute, it seemed to Igor that little tribute had been taken. He sent part of the squad with tribute to Kyiv, and with a smaller part of the soldiers he returned to the Drevlyans. Upon learning of this, the Drevlyans at the council said:

"If a wolf has become accustomed to sheep, then he will endure the whole herd until they kill him." And together with their prince, named Mal, they seized Igor, bent two young birch trees, tied Igor to them and released the trees, so that the prince was torn in half.

Igor left a young son Svyatoslav and his wife in Kyiv Olga. Immediately after that, the Drevlyan prince Mal immediately sent ambassadors to Igor's widow Olga, offering her to marry him. By taking Olga as his wife, Mal would thereby extend his power to all of Russia. However, Olga brutally cracked down on the Drevlyans. She and her retinue went to Iskorosten, the capital of the Drevlyans. Olga stood under the walls of Iskorosten for a whole summer, but she could not take it. Then she resorted to trickery. Pretending that she considered revenge sufficient, Olga promised to leave the city if tribute was paid to her. The Drevlyans agreed.

Olga demanded three doves and three sparrows from each yard. Having received tribute, she ordered tinder and sulfur to be tied to each bird, set on fire at night and released. Birds flew to their nests under the roofs of houses. The fire immediately engulfed the entire city. Fleeing from the fire, the Drevlyans fled into the hands of Olga's combatants, towards death.

Having avenged the death of her husband, Olga took up the organization of the state. She traveled all the cities of Kievan Rus. To pay tribute, she divided the whole country into graveyards (the word "graveyard" meant the place where the prince stopped while collecting tribute), set the exact amount of tribute (before Olga, the amount of tribute was not fixed).

Olga was one of the first to accept Christianity. She went to Constantinople to be baptized not by a simple priest, but by the patriarch himself. Emperor Constantine did not immediately accept Olga, and her boats had to stand for a long time in the Court (as the Golden Horn Bay was called), waiting in line. But when Constantine met Olga, he was delighted with her intelligence and beauty and invited her to become his wife and empress. Olga did not want this.

Fearing that her refusal would offend the emperor of Byzantium and interfere with her baptism, she resorted to trickery, saying that a pagan woman could not marry a Christian emperor until he had baptized her. Constantine ordered the patriarch to immediately baptize the Russian princess) and himself agreed to become her godfather. Olga was given the new name Elena in honor of the mother of Constantine the Great, the first Roman "Christian emperor."

After the ceremony, the question of marriage again arose, but Olga now answered: "How do you want to take me as your wife, when you yourself baptized and called me a daughter." Konstantin realized that Olga had outwitted him, but nevertheless let her go with great gifts.

Great Russian historian of the XIX century. Karamzin noted that tradition called Olga Khitroya for her revenge on the Drevlyans, the church was called Holy because she became the first Christian princess, history called Wise for the organization of the state.

Olga reigned until her son matured Svyatoslav, who was passionate about military affairs, and not government.

According to legend, Svyatoslav was dexterous, quick, bold and decisive. He lived with his retinue, ate meat fried on coals, slept, like a simple warrior, by a fire on the ground. His name inspired fear in the enemies of Russia. He was noble and honest. He did not attack unexpectedly, on the sly. On the contrary, he always sent a messenger to say: "I'm coming at you." His squad was strong, devoted to him.

First, Svyatoslav defeated the Khazars, captured their Sarkel fortress (later this fortress would become the Russian city of Belaya Vezha). He captured their capital Itil, located in the middle of the Volga River (then it was also called Itil), and forever put an end to the Khazar raids on Russian lands.

Then he turned to the West. Started a war with the Bulgarian kingdom, defeated the troops of Tsar Peter. Having conquered many cities, he settled in the Bulgarian city of Pereyaslavets (a city at the mouth of the Danube). This did not please the Emperor of Byzantium. He let the Pechenegs know about the long absence of Svyatoslav. The Pechenegs attacked Russia and surrounded Kyiv. Only the walls of Kyiv saved the people of Kiev and Olga with the children of Svyatoslav.

According to legend, a small squad led by the governor Pretich was on the other side of the Dnieper. Having learned about the attack of the Pechenegs, the warriors sailed to Kiev. The Pechenegs mistook the soldiers of Pretich for the squad of Svyatoslav and retreated.

A messenger was sent to Svyatoslav with the words: "You, prince, are looking for someone else's land, but you left your own ...". Svyatoslav returned to Kyiv and drove out the Pechenegs, but did not want to stay in Kyiv. He was drawn to Pereyaslavets. “There,” he said, “there will be the middle of my land. Gold, fabrics, wines, fruits flow there from the Greek land, silver and horses from the Czech Republic and Hungary, furs, wax, honey and fish from Russia.” But it wasn't wealth that tempted him. He aspired to where his military enterprises saw more space, and victories - more glory. But his mother Olga opposed his wishes. "When you bury me, then go wherever you want," she said.

After the death of his mother, Svyatoslav planted his eldest son Yaropolk instead of himself in Kyiv, sent his youngest son Oleg to reign to the Drevlyans, and the third - Vladimir - to Novgorod (Vladimir was not born from Svyatoslav's wife, but from the sister of one of the warriors, so Vladimir was called the son of a slave) .

After that, Svyatoslav went to Pereyaslavets, took him by storm and ordered to tell the Greeks: "I'm going to take your city, like this one." Svyatoslav defeated the army of the Greeks, which was several times superior. They paid Svyatoslav a large tribute, and the Pechenegs were informed that he was returning with a very small retinue, but with great wealth.

The Pechenegs attacked the Russian boats at the Dnieper rapids. In an unequal battle, Svyatoslav died. This was in 972. The Pecheneg Prince Kurya ordered that Svyatoslav's skull be bound in gold and a bowl made. He drank wine from it and bequeathed the same to his children, hoping that those who drink from this cup will acquire the spirit of invincibility of a great warrior.

After the death of Svyatoslav, three sovereigns appeared in the Russian land at once: Yaropolk - in Kyiv, Oleg - in Iskorosten, among the Drevlyans, Vladimir - in Novgorod. The lack of autocracy gave rise to civil strife.

First, Oleg and Yaropolk collided. Oleg, who opposed Yaropolk, was defeated, and he himself died. Vladimir gathered a large army, hired a detachment of the Varangians and opposed Yaropolk. Yaropolk was afraid to fight and shut himself up in Kyiv. His governor, named Fornication, betrayed his prince and agreed to help Vladimir. He advised Yaropolk to flee from Kyiv, and then go to his brother with a request for peace. The weak-willed Yaropolk listened to the advice. But when he turned himself in to his brother, he was seized and killed.

After that, Vladimir united, as once Oleg, Novgorod and Kiev, and became an autocratic prince. These events date back to 980.

Vladimir's reign (980-1015) became a new stage in the development of Kievan Rus. By the time of his reign, the state showed signs of internal decay. Some tribes "separated" from Kyiv (Vyatichi, Radimichi).

In 981 and 982 Vladimir made campaigns against the Vyatichi, and in 984 - against the Radimichi, forcing them to submit to Kyiv. In 981 he conquered the Cherven cities from Poland. To strengthen the internal ties of the Kievan state, Vladimir used the practice of replacing local tribal princes with his proteges (governors).

During his reign, Vladimir expanded the borders of the Russian state to the Baltic Sea. The peoples who lived on its banks began to pay tribute to it. He waged successful wars with the Poles and the Volga Bulgarians.

According to legend, Vladimir had several wives and many concubines. Militancy and womanly love were combined in Vladimir with statesmanship and an interest in faith. In the first year of his reign, realizing the importance of religion, he ordered to place gods carved from wood on the banks of the Dnieper, which the Slavs then worshiped. The same was done in Novgorod. However, the pagan religion did not respond to the developing feudal relations and the strengthening of princely power.

In The Tale of Bygone Years, a long story is devoted to Vladimir's doubts when choice of faith. He sent boyars to different countries to choose the best faith and eventually settled on Christianity of the Byzantine rite. Russia has been familiar with Christianity for a long time. At the beginning of the X century. among the warriors of Igor were Christians. Princess Olga was also a Christian. However, close political, economic and cultural ties with Byzantium apparently played a decisive role in the establishment of Christianity in Russia.

The new faith was introduced by force. They cut and burned idols. Kyivans who tried to evade baptism were frightened by the confiscation of property, under pain of death they were driven into the Dnieper for baptism. This is how Russia was baptized. Following the date of 882 (the foundation of the Old Russian state), a second great date appeared in Russian history - 988 - the year of the baptism of Russia.

In this event, one should see not only the most important religious reform, but also certain political actions aimed at strengthening the Kievan state. Vladimir was looking for a religion that could more tightly unite his entire state.

Having been baptized, Vladimir sincerely accepted the faith. Not being able to read, he fell in love with books, called Greek artists from Byzantium to paint churches, and opened the first school. Vladimir no longer wanted to fight. And he even stopped executing robbers, afraid to take on the sin of murder. The church called him a saint, and popular rumor called Vladimir "Red Sun" (at baptism he was given the name Vasily).

The adoption of Christianity by Russia was of great importance. It brought Russia closer to other Christian countries, contributed to the spread of writing and literacy, and enriched Russian culture. At the same time, the Christian Church, preaching the division of society into masters and servants, called for humility and obedience to the authorities, deified the power of the prince.

Christianity was the religion of feudal society, and the landowning class, which was gaining ground in Russia, regarded Christianity as the most acceptable ideological form for exercising its dominance.

The adoption of Christianity strengthened the international position of Russia. At the end of X - beginning of XI centuries. the embassy of the Pope visited Russia, and the Russian embassies - in Rome. Ties with Bulgaria were strengthened, diplomatic, cultural and trade relations with the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, France and England expanded.

Vladimir lived a long century, he reigned for almost 50 years, glorifying and strengthening Kiev and Russia. He died in 1015. Vladimir had 12 sons from different wives. He allotted possessions to all, planted everyone to reign in different cities. However, each of them wanted to reign in Kyiv, since taking a table in Kyiv meant taking all of Russia under his hand.

After the death of Vladimir, Yaropolk's son Svyatopolk (1015-1019), who was adopted by Vladimir after Yaropolk's death, became the Prince of Kyiv. Fearing his younger brothers, he treacherously killed two of them - Boris and Gleb. A bloody struggle between the brothers continued for several years. Each of them relied on foreign aid. So, Yaroslav had Varangian mercenaries, Svyatopolk had the troops of the Polish king. Only in 1019 Yaroslav managed to finally win and become the prince of Kyiv.

Yaroslav, nicknamed the Wise (1019-1054), continued Vladimir's policy aimed at strengthening the Russian state. Under him, Kyiv became one of the largest cities in Europe. There were many churches and markets in the city. Under Yaroslav, the Golden Gate was built in Kiev, which became the main entrance to the capital of Ancient Russia.

The reign of Yaroslav the Wise was the heyday of Kievan Rus. She was subject to a vast territory from the Black to the Baltic Sea. The eastern and southern borders were no longer threatened by the Pechenegs. Yaroslav defeated them in 1036 near Kyiv. The outpost of the state in the Baltic States was the city of Yuryev founded by him (modern Tartu).

The growth of the power and authority of Russia allowed Yaroslav to appoint for the first time the statesman and writer Hilarion as Metropolitan of Kyiv. The prince himself was called, like the Byzantine rulers, the king, as evidenced by the inscription of the XI century. on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral.

Under Yaroslav the Wise, Russia achieved wide international recognition. The largest royal courts of Europe sought to intermarry with the prince's family. So, Yaroslav was married to a Swedish princess. His daughters were married to the French, Hungarian and Norwegian kings. The Polish king married the sister of the Grand Duke. The son of Yaroslav Vsevolod was married to the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh.

Yaroslav's nickname - "Wise" - was apparently due not only to the fact that he was an "organizer" and legislator, but also to his love of books and knowledge. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the compilation of one of the largest legal monuments of the Middle Ages and Slavic law, Russkaya Pravda, a code of laws of the Old Russian state, began. "Russkaya Pravda" is the most significant source for characterizing the social system of the Old Russian state. The oldest chronicle that has come down to us, The Tale of Bygone Years, also provides material for studying the social system.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Kievan Rus With what countries and peoples did Kievan Rus neighbor? The neighbors of Kievan Rus were: from the northwest - the Normans and Lithuanian tribes (Yotvingians, Samogitians and Aukshtaits), from the west - Poland (Polyakhs), from the southeast - the Khazar Khaganate and nomads (Pechenegs), from the south - the Byzantine Empire. The most important in the IX - early X centuries. there were relations with the Khazars, steppe nomads and especially Byzantium. ?

The Slavs and the Khazar Khaganate How did relations between the Slavs and the Khazar Khaganate develop in the 8th–9th centuries? The Khazars took tribute from the Slavs who lived to the east of the Dnieper: Vyatichi, Radimichi, northerners. At the end of the ninth century Oleg conquered the northerners and Radimichi, and they became tributaries of the Kievan princes ("Don't give to the Khazars, but give to me!"). Vyatichi still remained tributaries of the Khazars. The boundary of the settlement of the Slavs. The border of the Khazar Khaganate. ?

Russia and nomads From the east and south-east of Russia, raids of nomads constantly threatened. In 898, the outskirts of Kyiv were plundered by the Ugric tribes coming from the east. Taking tribute from the people of Kiev, they went west and settled on the territory of modern Hungary. In the lower reaches of the Dnieper, merchant caravans were threatened by the Pechenegs, who roamed one day's horse journey from Kyiv. Nomad raid. Modern drawing.

Russia and Byzantium What attracted the Varangians and Slavs to Byzantium? The Varangians and Slavs were barbarians, they were struck by the unprecedented wealth of Byzantium. The desire to seize these riches prompted them to raid Byzantium in the same way as in the III-V centuries. The Germans were raiding the Roman Empire. Byzantine jewelry?

Russia and Byzantium On such boats, the Varangians and Slavs descended along the path “From the Varangians to the Greeks” and robbed the Black Sea coast of Byzantium. In 860, according to Byzantine chroniclers, the Rus besieged Constantinople. The siege lasted a week, after which the Rus, taking rich gifts, retreated from the walls of the city and sailed north. The Rus are most likely not Slavs, but Normans. Slavic boat. ? What does the Slavic battle boat look like? On the drakar a Viking ship.

Oleg's campaign against Tsargrad In 907 Oleg made a campaign against Tsargrad (Constantinople). The chronicle says that all Slavic tribes participated in the campaign, including the streets, Tivertsy and Vyatichi, and Oleg's flotilla numbered 2 thousand ships. Slavs on the march. Hood V.A. Nagornov. ? Think about what historical information can be extracted from the chronicle story, and what is clearly unreliable in it?

Oleg's campaign against Constantinople Oleg chose a good time for the raid: the Byzantine fleet fought the Arabs far from Constantinople. As the Russians approached, the Greeks blocked the entrance to the Golden Horn with a massive chain, making it inaccessible to enemy ships. Plan of Constantinople.

Oleg's Campaign to Constantinople The chronicle tells that, on Oleg's orders, his soldiers pulled the boats ashore, put them on wheels and, raising the sails, moved to the walls of Constantinople. What do you think really happened? Walls of Constantinople. Reconstruction. ? Apparently, the Russians used the portage technique: they put the rooks on the skating rinks and rolled them up to the walls, hitting and frightening the Greeks, who were unaccustomed to such a spectacle.

Oleg's campaign against Constantinople The Byzantines, seeing that they were unable to withstand Oleg's troops, agreed to pay tribute to him: 12 hryvnias per oar for 2,000 ships. Rooks of Prince Oleg near the walls of Constantinople. Miniature from the Radziwill chronicle of the 13th century. After that, peace was concluded between the Russians and Byzantium. The empire undertook to send tribute to the largest Russian cities: Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Lubeck, Rostov. Russian ambassadors received the right to live in Byzantium at the expense of the imperial treasury for an unlimited time.

Oleg's campaign against Constantinople Russian merchants could live in Byzantium at the expense of the treasury for six months. The empire was obliged to supply the Russians on the way back with food, sails, anchors and ropes. ? What did the last clause of the treaty mean and what was its significance? Rooks of Prince Oleg near the walls of Constantinople. Miniature from the Radziwill chronicle of the 13th century. Russian merchants received the right to trade in Byzantium, "not washed in anything."

Oleg's agreement with Byzantium At the conclusion of the agreement, the Byzantines kissed the cross, and Oleg and his warriors swore by Perun, Veles and weapons. What does such an oath say? On the paganism of Russians. Oleg nails a shield to the gates of Constantinople. Hood. I.K. Bodarevsky. Last quarter of the 19th century ? Leaving Constantinople, Oleg nailed his shield to the gates of the Byzantine capital as a sign of reconciliation and friendship.

Oleg's agreement with Byzantium In 911, Oleg's embassy arrived in Constantinople, signing a new agreement that supplemented the agreement of 907. The parties proclaimed: "let us love each other with all our heart and desire." The treaty provided for punishment for the crimes of the Greeks against Russians and Russians against the Greeks, assistance in shipwrecks, the mutual ransom of captives, and the mutual return of fugitive slaves. Sheet of the Radziwill chronicle, telling about Oleg's campaign against Tsargrad. ? What is especially interesting about the last clause of the treaty?

Oleg's treaty with Byzantium The treaty of 911 included an article on allied assistance to Byzantium from Russia and on the service of Russians in the Byzantine troops. What kind of relationship between the empire and Russia does this speak of? The Byzantines hired Russians (Varangians) to serve in the imperial troops. This was typical of the empire's interaction with barbarian peoples. Vikings in the service of Byzantium. Modern drawing. ?

Union of Russia with Byzantium In 909-910. the Russian army recovered on a campaign against the enemies of Byzantium: the vassals of the Baghdad caliph in Transcaucasia and the southeastern Caspian region. In 912-913 followed by a new campaign to the East. The Russians entered the Black Sea, with the consent of the Khazar Khagan, they went up the Don, dragged the boats to the Volga and, entering the Caspian Sea, defeated the southern and western coasts of the Caspian.

Union of Russia with Byzantium On the way back from Transcaucasia, the Russian army was attacked by the Muslim guards of the Khazar Khagan, who decided to avenge the blood of fellow believers. Despite the fact that the Khagan warned the Russians about a possible attack, the Khazar Muslims and the vassals of the Khaganate Burtases killed most of the Russian combatants. Only a few returned from the campaign. Etheriot (a Viking warrior in the Byzantine service) with a Greek shield. Modern reconstruction.

Igor's campaign against Constantinople In 941, 30 years after Oleg's treaty with Byzantium, Prince Igor of Kyiv set out on a campaign against Constantinople. The campaign failed: near the capital, the Byzantine fleet burned the Russian boats with “Greek fire”. Igor's campaign against Constantinople. Miniature from the Radziwill Chronicle. "Greek fire" - a combustible mixture based on oil, sulfur, saltpeter, resin and, possibly, oil, which was not extinguished by water. Barrels and vessels with an ignited mixture were thrown onto enemy ships or in fortresses with the help of throwing guns.

Igor's Campaign to Constantinople The flames that engulfed the boats and people throwing themselves into the sea inspired such horror in the Russian soldiers that, returning home, they told that the Greeks had rained down on them heavenly lightning. Three years later, in 944, having hired an additional Varangian army and the Pecheneg army, Igor again undertook a campaign against Constantinople. Igor's battle with the Byzantines. Hood. V. Ivanov.

Igor's Campaign to Constantinople The Emperor sent envoys to Igor with the words: "Do not go to the city, but take tribute, Oleg had to go south, I will give it to that tribute." The prince turned to the squad for advice. Byzantine ambassadors ask for peace. Miniature from the Radziwill Chronicle. The squad replied: “What more do you want - without fighting, take gold, and silver, and curtains? Who knows who will prevail, whether we, whether one? Behold, we do not walk on the earth, but on the depths of the sea.” Taking tribute, Igor returned to Kyiv.

Igor's treaty with Byzantium In 944, Byzantine ambassadors arrived in Kyiv to conclude a new peace treaty. After that, the Russian ambassadors went to Constantinople, where the emperor approved the agreement, and then the second Byzantine embassy arrived in Kyiv, and the agreement was approved by the Kyiv prince. Conclusion of a peace treaty. Miniature from the Radziwill Chronicle. ? What does the exchange of embassies and the signing of an agreement not only in Constantinople, but also in Kyiv testify to?

Igor's treaty with Byzantium The treaty between Igor and Byzantium confirmed many of the terms of Oleg's treaty of 907–911. However, Russian ambassadors and merchants could not now spend the winter in Byzantium, but had to return home during one navigation. Vacation of Russian ambassadors from Constantinople. Miniature from the Radziwill Chronicle. The number of fabrics purchased by Russian merchants was limited. Russian merchants lost the right to free trade in Byzantium.

Igor's treaty with Byzantium Russia undertook not to attack Chersonese, not to seize land at the mouth of the Dnieper, to defend Chersonese from the attack of nomads - "black Bulgarians". Russia pledged to help Byzantium with troops: The conclusion of a peace treaty between Russia and Byzantium. Miniature from the Radziwill Chronicle. “If you want to start our kingdom from you, howls (warriors) against those who are fighting us, let us write to your great prince, and he will send us, if we want.” ? What do these articles of the treaty indicate?

Diplomacy of Princess Olga A new stage in relations between Russia and Byzantium began under Princess Olga. In 957 (according to other sources in 955), Olga herself went to Constantinople on a visit. There she was baptized, and the patriarch baptized her, and the emperor himself acted as the godfather. The princess was received in Constantinople with great honor, which testified to the growth of the prestige of Russia. The Russo-Byzantine alliance established in 944 strengthened. Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Princess Olga (baptism). Hood. S.A. Kirillov.

Summing up What were the main directions of the foreign policy of Kievan Rus in the 1st half of the 10th century? What foreign policy results did the Kyiv princes manage to achieve in the th half of the 10th century? What foreign policy failures did the princes of Kyiv suffer in the first half of the 10th century? ? ? ?

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The relationship of Kievan Rus with its neighbors. IX - XII centuries In the IX - XII centuries, Byzantium and the nomadic tribes of the lower reaches of the Dnieper and Don were the priority areas of the foreign policy of the Russian state, if such a term as foreign policy is generally applicable to the period under review. In general, the first rulers of the Russian lands chose the southern direction - the capture of Smolensk and Kyiv by Oleg, his campaigns along the great path from the Varangians to the Greeks to Byzantium (907 and 911, according to other sources, 912), constant skirmishes with nomads - the Khazars, Polovtsy, later - Pechenegs. Relations with Byzantium require separate consideration. The first raids on Byzantium by the Varangian princes from Kyiv date back to the year 860, that is, two years before the beginning of the reign of Rurik and his brothers, Sineus and Truvor.

These raids worried Constantinople in order, as the formidable glory of the Vikings was already rolling across Europe. Then the Varangian princes of the Russian lands appeared in the field of view of the Byzantine chroniclers in 907, during Oleg's victorious campaign against Tsargrad (Constantinople), which gave rise to a lot of legends and tales in the Russian land. The agreement, extremely beneficial for Russia, was confirmed by Oleg five years later with a new campaign across the Black Sea. Igor's campaigns against Byzantium were not as successful as Oleg's campaigns, and Igor's treaty of 945 significantly detracted from the benefits that were obtained by the weapons of Oleg's squad for Russian merchants (for example, free trade in Constantinople, benefits when paying duties, etc. .

) However, Igor's campaign is notable for the fact that nomadic Pechenegs acted in alliance with the Kyiv squad, whose first attack on Russia was recorded shortly before. The next important milestone in the relationship between Kievan Rus and the Byzantine Empire is the trip of Princess Olga to Constantinople in 957 or, according to other sources, in 958. There, according to legend, Olga was baptized, although the opinion has now become stronger that Olga was baptized around 955 in the Russian land. Russian legends ascribed great importance to this trip in the history of both countries, while Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Emperor of Byzantium, mentioning the Russian princess, uses the most ordinary expressions and, moreover, does not express his intention to marry Olga, as the chronicle tells about it. Olga's son and heir, Svyatoslav Igorevich, at the beginning of his military activity paid more attention to the eastern direction, in particular, the Khazar Khaganate.

The strategy of attacking the peoples of the multinational Khazar state justified itself perfectly: a campaign against the Vyatichi, then against the Khazars proper, accompanied by the capture of large cities - Sarkel and Itil; during the same campaign, Svyatoslav's squad defeated the Kuban nomads, including the Circassians, and captured the so-called. Tmutarakan (now Taman); some time later, Svyatoslav's Volga campaign against the Kama (Volga) Bulgarians followed. Thus, the Khazar Khaganate was completely neutralized (965), but this cannot be considered a positive factor for Russia, because.

the weakening of the relatively peaceful Khazars gave the southern Russian steppes into the possession of the nomadic much more warlike Pechenegs, which significantly reduced the defense capability of Kyiv. In general, relatively little is known about the relationship of Russia with the nomads - mainly the dates of wars and raids and rare allied treaties against the Greeks. This is due to the fact that the ancient chroniclers were mainly interested only in out-of-the-ordinary events, which were military campaigns. For example, Russian chronicles do not say anything about the life of nomads in the southern Russian steppes, fragmentary information can be gleaned from the Byzantine annals and the writings of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (mid-10th century). About the same neighbors of Russia as the Ugro-Samoyed tribes, the ancestors of modern Hungarians, who, according to some historians (L.

N. Gumilyov and others) before the strengthening of Russia under Svyatoslav in the 950s were a very formidable force. Following the victory over the Khazar Khaganate, Svyatoslav in 967, in alliance with the Greeks, went on his last major successful military campaign - to Danube Bulgaria. However, the Russian prince on the banks of the Danube was extremely unprofitable for the Greeks, and, after Svyatoslav refused to voluntarily leave Pereyaslavets-on-the-Danube, the troops of the Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes inflicted a crushing defeat on Svyatoslav's squad in the battles near Bolshoi Preslav and Dorostol in 971, after which he was forced go home to Kyiv, but on the way there his squad was intercepted by the Pechenegs, and Svyatoslav was killed.

Russian troops returned to the Danube only 800 years later, during the Russo-Turkish wars of the 18th century. The insecurity of the southern borders and the weak defense of Kyiv, which has already been mentioned, forced Vladimir Svyatoslavich and his heirs to strengthen the southern borders of the state. So, under Vladimir the Holy, the first in the history of Russia, the so-called "secret line", that is, a defensive line from the system of fortresses along the rivers Desna, Sturgeon, Trubezh, Sulyo, Stugnyo, was built. Subsequently, other defensive lines were based on this system to protect the southern Russian cities from the steppe nomads.

Also, an important initiative of St. Vladimir was to attract tribes from the northern Russian lands to fight against the southern peoples. In addition, the southern campaigns of St. Vladimir in the Crimea and the Kuban caused a clash between Russian squads and Greek colonies. The capture of Chersonese by Vladimir led to his marriage to the Greek princess Anna, and, apparently, the adoption of Christianity from the Greeks and the baptism of Russia, which, as is known, began in 988. The well-known quarrelsome disposition of the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk the Accursed, thanks to whom he was expelled in 1015, is recorded in the Czech chronicles, where Svyatopolk fled and unsuccessfully tried to find supporters in the struggle for the return of the throne and where he died in 1019. In the 10th century, Kievan Rus reached its peak.

Occupying a huge territory for those times - from the Crimea and Taman to the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina and Ladoga and from the Dniester to the Volga region, the Russian state became the largest territorial entity of medieval Europe. It became profitable for the Western European monarchical houses to deal with Kyiv, since that period Russian trade agreements have come down to us not only with Byzantium, relations with which began to worsen even under Svyatoslav, but also with Hungary, France and some. etc. Marriage agreements are also concluded with the ruling houses of the same France, Poland, Norway. For example, Svyatopolk the Accursed was married to the daughter of the Polish king Boleslav I, Yaroslav the Wise - to Princess Ingegerda (in baptism - Irina) from the Swedish royal house, his daughters - Anna and Elizabeth - became the wives of Henry I of France and Harald of Norway, respectively.

Anastasia Yaroslavovna married the King of Hungary. The stability of the western borders allowed the Kyiv princes to give all their strength to the active and successful struggle against the nomads and Byzantium on the Black Sea and Azov coasts. So, after the defeat in 1034 of the Pecheneg horde from the detachments of Yaroslav the Wise, these nomads no longer appeared under the walls of Kyiv. Soon Yaroslav undertook a campaign against Byzantium (1043), which was not successful and led to a war with the Greeks (1043-1046), which became the last military clash between Kievan Rus and the Byzantine Empire. After that, Russian-Byzantine relations moved to the rank of cultural cooperation.

Writing and faith came from Byzantium to Russia. This was caused not so much by the desire of the Russians to convert to Christianity or the patriarch of Constantinople to acquire new converts, but by the desire of the patriarchate to send somewhere the surplus of the clerical population, which were very numerous: six thousand bishops, ten thousand monks and other brethren were a real ulcer for the country. For this reason, and also due to the illiteracy of the local population, the first bishops, priests, and monks in Russia were from the Greeks. The new church was declared part of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and Kyiv initially occupied the penultimate place in the list of metropolises. In general, during the entire existence of the great Kievan princedom, there were only two Russian bishops on the metropolitan throne - Hilarion under Yaroslav the Wise, ordained in 1051, and Clement, under Izyaslav, was ordained in 1148 instead of Bishop Michael, a Greek by birth, who quarreled with the Grand Duke .

They lived surrounded by many neighbors. On - western, on - southern Slavs. In the northwest, the Baltic lands were occupied by the ancestors of modern Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians. In the northeast, forests and taiga lived many Finno-Ugric tribes - Mordovians, Karelians. In the east, in the region of the Middle Volga, the state of Volga Bulgaria was formed. These Bulgarians were a Turkic people related to the Chuvash and the Caucasian Balkars. The owners of the southern steppes were nomads - Turks, Avars, Khazars. In the IX century. Pechenegs appeared there, and in the XI century. The Polovtsy came to the steppes. In the region of the Middle Danube (modern Hungary) in the 9th century. Hungarian tribes settled - they came there from the Urals through the Russian steppes and there they found a new homeland. The names of the Eastern Slavic tribes: Drevlyans - after 990, Slovenes - after 1018, Krivichi - after 1127, Dregovichi - after 1183, Vyatichi, who lived longer than others without princes, after 1197. The relationship of Russia with neighboring states and peoples.

1) to Byzantium. B9-14 centuries - were friends, fought, traded. (economic, cultural relations). 2) Khazars. lived off the extortions from trade. 3) Nomads (Pechenegs, Cumans). incited by Byzantium against Russia. constant struggle with the nomads. The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. In addition, they were engaged in fishing, hunting and beekeeping. Surpluses of their production were sold. The Slavs traded not only among themselves, but also with other peoples. The main trade items were grain, animal skins, wax and honey. The strip of steppes that lay along the northern shores of the Black Sea served for a long time as a "corridor" along which peoples traveled from Asia to Europe. With these peoples - Goths, Huns, Avars and others - the Eastern Slavs had to fight for their independent existence. Sometimes they managed to secure their independence, sometimes they found themselves under the rule of other peoples. In the 7th century, a large state of the Khazars, a people of Turkic origin, was formed in the southern part of European Russia. The Khazars subjugated part of the Russian tribes. But other Russian tribes did not submit to the Khazars and went north along the Dnieper, to the upper reaches of the Western Dvina, the Volga and to the shores of the Baltic Sea, founding trading cities everywhere. From the end of the 7th century, two Russias can be distinguished - Northern - forest and commercial, which in the 8th and 9th centuries will be in the sphere of influence of the Normans and will remain pagan for a long time, and Southern - steppe, where the influence of Byzantium and Christianity penetrates quite early. Such a division will exist until the time of Saint Vladimir. The ninth century was a time of great activity of the Scandinavians, who attacked various countries of Europe and even reached Constantinople. The Scandinavians also penetrated into Russia through the country of the Great Lakes. From there they looked for trade routes to the east and south along the Volga and Dnieper rivers. Russian chronicles report under the year 862 that the Slavs who lived to the north around Novgorod were constantly at enmity with each other.

Ancient Russia.Features of social and watered. building. The Old Russian state can be characterized as an early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His brothers, sons and warriors carried out the administration of the country, the court, the collection of tribute and duties. The income of the princes and their associates was then still largely determined by the tribute from the subordinate tribes, the possibility of exporting it to other countries for sale. The young state faced major foreign policy tasks related to the protection of its borders: repulsing the raids of the nomadic Pechenegs, fighting the expansion of Byzantium, the Khazar Khaganate, and Volga Bulgaria. Under feudalism, the main yavl. property on the ground. In Kievan Rus, the land was owned by the entire princely family. The order of transmission was regular (from the older brother to the younger). At the head was a prince with a retinue, a council of elders, a veche, in the field - posadniks, governors. The system of control was called numerical or decimal - according to the number of people in military units. Way sod-I officials - feeding. Feud. rel-I in Kievan Rus developed. more slowly than in countries. In Russia, developed servile relatives, and in the West vassalage was developed - contractual relatives. The main source, according to the cat. we can judge how they lived in Kievan Rus - "Russkaya Pravda" - a set of ancient Russian feuds. law in criminal and procedural cases. Features of socio-polit. building. The whole community was divided in relation to the prince into 3 groups: 1) who personally served the prince; 2) on the free - they did not serve personally, but paid tribute to the world - the community; 3) served private individuals. Estates have not yet formed. There were mostly free, semi-free and slaves (serfs). Slavery did not spread. Main the mass of the rural population, depended. from the prince, was called "smerds". There were merchants and artisans. Among the vigilantes stood out. max. approximate - the boyars who received the land, the cat. could be inherited. Later, nobles also appear - they receive land only for the duration of their service.

Socio-economic and national policy of the Soviet state (1921-1941).

At the Tenth Congress of the RCP(b) in March 1921, Lenin proposed a new economic policy (NEP). It was an anti-crisis program, which consisted in recreating a multi-structural economy and using the organizational and technical experience of the capitalists under the absolute power of the RCP (b). The political goal of the NEP is to relieve tension and strengthen the social base of Soviet power in the form of an alliance of workers and peasants. The economic goal is to prevent further aggravation of the devastation, to get out of the crisis and restore the economy. The social goal is to provide favorable conditions for building a socialist society without waiting for the world revolution. In addition, the NEP was aimed at restoring normal foreign policy and foreign economic relations, at overcoming international isolation.

The introduction of the NEP began with agriculture by replacing the surplus appropriation with the tax in kind. After the fulfillment of state deliveries, free trade in the products of their economy was allowed. The lease of land and the hiring of labor were allowed. In production and trade, private individuals were allowed to open small and rent medium-sized enterprises. Domestic and foreign capital was allowed to create joint-stock and joint ventures with the state. The activities of state enterprises became more independent, self-sustaining and self-supporting.

In the financial sector, in addition to the State Bank, private and cooperative banks, insurance companies appeared. In 1922, a monetary reform was carried out, the Soviet chervonets was put into circulation, which was valued on the world currency market. This made it possible to strengthen the national currency and put an end to inflation. As a result, the food tax was replaced by its cash equivalent. As a result of the NEP in 1926, the development of industry stabilized. The living conditions of the urban and rural population improved. The abolition of the food distribution rationing system has begun.

Thus, one of the tasks of the NEP - overcoming the devastation - was solved (the economic problem). Changes have also taken place in social policy (social task). A new Code of Labor Laws was adopted, abolishing general labor service. A reform was made in the payment system - instead of natural remuneration, a monetary system based on the tariff scale was introduced.

The course towards industrialization was taken at the XIV Congress of the CPSU (b) in December 1925. It was about the need to transform the USSR from a country importing machinery and equipment into a country producing them.

At the turn of the 1920s and 1930s, the country's leadership took a course towards speeding up industrial development. This was embodied in the five-year plans for the development of the national economy.

First Five-Year Plan 1928-1932 The main task of the five-year plan was to transform the country from an agro-industrial into an industrial one. The country's leadership decided to put forward the slogan - to catch up and overtake in the shortest possible time in technical and economic terms the advanced capitalist countries. Behind him was the desire to eliminate the backwardness of the country and build a new society as soon as possible at any cost. The industrial backwardness and international isolation of the USSR stimulated the choice of the forced development of heavy industry.

Second Five-Year Plan 1933-1937 The main economic task was to complete the reconstruction of the national economy on the basis of the latest technology for all its branches. The plan was completed ahead of schedule.

agricultural question. The industrial breakthrough had a serious impact on the situation of the peasant economy. Excessive taxation aroused the discontent of the rural population. The prices of manufactured goods increased exorbitantly. At the same time, state purchase prices for bread were artificially lowered. As a result, the supply of grain to the state was sharply reduced. This caused a deep grain crisis at the end of 1927. It worsened the economic situation in the country and jeopardized the implementation of the industrialization plan. The crisis of the procurement campaign and the administrative-command leadership led to the transition to general collectivization. This was reflected in the widespread creation of new collective farms. They were financed, provided benefits. Measures were taken to limit the development of kulak farms.

On December 5, 1936, the Constitution of the USSR was adopted. It reflected the changes in the national-state structure of the USSR. New independent republics arose: the Armenian, Azerbaijan and Georgian SSR. The Kazakh ASSR and the Kirghiz ASSR were transformed into union republics. The total number of union republics increased to 11.