What state was Babylon in? The history of the ancient state of Babylonia briefly

Ishtar Gate

Babylon ("Gate of God") - a majestic city in Mesopotamia of the Ancient World, the capital of the state "Babylonia" - in the distant past was the center of the "world kingdom". Now these are ancient ruins located about 90 km south of Baghdad (Iraq).

History of the "Eternal Home of the Royal"

The emergence of Babylon falls on the second half of the third millennium BC, on the banks of the Euphrates River in the center of Mesopotamia.

• By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. attributed to the foundation in then small Babylon of a new dynasty. When Hammurabi ascended the throne, Babylon turned into a political center and maintained this position for more than a millennium.

Interesting fact: Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi received the status of "the eternal abode of royalty."

Babylon, as the capital of southern Mesopotamia, grew rich and rapidly developed trade and crafts. Growth in the economic sector affected the appearance of Babylon, turning it into a luxurious and regal city. Changed architecture, roads and building plan.

Babylonian lion

• The event-tragedy for Babylon (689 BC) occurred during the period of aggression of the king of Assyria Sennacherib, who fell into a rage from the disobedience of Babylon. Sennacherib destroyed the capital, and the city that was excavated by the archaeologist Coldway is not old Babylon, but a new one rebuilt and restored.
• After the death of the Assyrian king, Nebuchadnezzar ruled Babylon. The period of his power (604-562 BC) is the era of the apogee of the development of Babylonia - economic, social and cultural.

Babylon, thanks to the military conquests of the country, became the center of the influx of material and cultural wealth. Thanks to this, grandiose reconstruction activities were carried out in Babylon, the capital became the largest and richest center of the ancient Near East.

Features of the construction and architecture of Babylon

The plan of the city was a division into 2 parts - the Old and New cities, which were located on different banks of the Euphrates. The left bank is the area of ​​the Old City. Rich estates were located here. And on the right bank of the river was the New City. Mostly ordinary citizens lived here.

The Old and New cities were connected by a huge stone bridge. Quite long straight streets ran through the whole city, dividing it into rectangular quarters.

National - cultural diversity

Babylon was a major capital, with a population of approximately 200,000 inhabitants. In addition to the Babylonians, people of other cultures, languages ​​and nationalities lived in the city. There were also forcibly brought slaves, captives. Representatives of a particular culture spoke their own languages ​​and followed their own traditions.

"Miracles" of Babylon

This legendary city was not only a powerful center, but also an incredibly beautiful city. Herodotus called it the most beautiful place he had ever seen. Gardens of Babylon (Hanging Gardens) and the Tower of Babel, which are the Wonders of the World, the gates of the goddess Ishtar, the seven-tiered Ziggurat tower and the Babylonian lion- this is what you must see if you are going to visit the ruins of Babylon.

• 539 - the time of the conquest of Babylon by the Persians. After the uprising in 479, the city lost its independence and the status of the state capital and the most important center of culture.

Later, the inhabitants of Babylon began to be resettled in Seleucia-on-Tigris, the new capital. In the end, Babylon was left with a poor settlement, which soon also disappeared. The once great, powerful city of kings and gods has turned into sandy and forgotten ruins.

Among the numerous cities of the Ancient East, Babylon should be singled out - the most revered and famous.

The name of the city sounds like "Bab-Ilu", which means "Gate of God".

Babylon has been the capital twice in its history:

• from 1800 to 1700 BC. - the first amplification, the Old Babylonian period;
• 626 - 539 BC. - rise after the collapse of the Assyrian state; neo-Babylonian kingdom.

Back in time, the first small settlement appeared, which would later turn into powerful Babylon. The place turned out to be very advantageous - between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, among numerous channels. And the situation itself was favorable for trade, although at first no one thought about it.

The prosperity of Ancient Babylon began with the fragmentation of economic lands into smaller ones, which as a result established trade and influenced the resumption of work in the fields. Peasants and artisans themselves decided what to grow, what to produce.

Multiple markets, appearing like mushrooms after rain, made it possible to sell fish, grain, dates, fabrics. Surplus products, which were now in abundance, were sold to other countries through wealthy tamkar merchants. The latter brought in slaves instead, since the lack of labor seriously hampered the development of the city.

The first five rulers of Babylon were cautious with their neighbors - with Larsa, Mari, Isina. The kings of Babylonia looked for partners and made alliances, although there was still no talk of equality with larger neighbors.

The situation is radically changed by the sixth ruler of the city - Hammurabi. It is his name that is often mentioned in school textbooks. He began his reign in 1792 BC. and reigned until 1750 BC. His main achievement is considered to be a collection of laws - the Code of Hammurabi.

The collection of laws of the ancient Eastern king was discovered by French archaeologists in 1901 during excavations in Susa. The researchers found a large stone pillar, which had an image of Hammurabi and a set of his 247 laws. It is from this cuneiform that historians can judge the life of Babylonia.

When Hammurabi's son, Samsuilun, ascended the throne, Babylonia shrank in size due to serious defeats in the wars with its neighbors. Starting from 1595 BC. then Babylon, or rather, the Old Babylonian kingdom was destroyed by external enemies - the Kassites and the Hittites. For the next 400 years, it was they who ruled in these parts, which history remembered as the existence of the Hittite kingdom.

It was the ancient Babylonians who taught us to divide the year into 12 months, to measure hours in minutes and seconds, and to divide the circle into 360 degrees.

In 689 B.C. Babylon was completely destroyed by the king of Sennacherib, the ruler of Assyria at that time. After a very short time, the city was rebuilt and now Babylonia was waiting for a new heyday, which happened thanks to the efforts of Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 605 to 562. BC.

Now there were no crooked streets, but only long and straight streets stretching for 5 km. The correct quarters appeared; a seven-step pyramid-like temple, 91 m high (ziggurat). The powerful defensive walls, 7 m thick, deserved special attention, and the entrance to the city began with the famous decorated gates erected in honor of the goddess Ishtar.

In 600 B.C. Babylon was a magnificent haven for 200,000 people. Then it was a large city that deserved its place of honor in the history of the Ancient East. The city was not destined to survive. In 539 BC. he was handed over to King Cyrus, the Iranian ruler, who seemed to be a more attractive host to the Babylonian merchants than his own rulers.

About 4 thousand years ago, on the territory between two full-flowing rivers, where the Tigris and Euphrates almost approached each other, the Amorites created their own state of Babylonia with the capital city of Babylon (which means "gates of God" in ancient language).

At the same time, there were many powerful and wealthy city-states in Mesopotamia, but it was Babylon, in a fair fight, that won the right to be considered the main state of Mesopotamia.

The flourishing and glory of Babylon was brought by its ruler Hammurabi, who, in an effort to increase his own kingdom, annexed all the surrounding states - Ashur, Elam, Susiana, etc. Very soon Babylon became a large and strong state, whose inhabitants were successfully engaged in agriculture, and also conducted a trade in metals, wool, timber, grain and other goods.

What is the Two Rivers?

The vast space between two full-flowing rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates since the 4th century. BC. gave "shelter" to many ancient states of our planet. Sumer, Assyria, Babylonia, Akkad, Elam, etc. were located here at one time. All this area was called Mesopotamia in ancient times, and since it was located in a valley between two mighty rivers, it received the additional names Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia.

The Tigris and Euphrates were rivers with a complex "character": every summer they overflowed very widely, breaking and flooding everything in their path: villages, pastures, roads, crops, etc. However, going into their own course, the rivers compensated for the inconvenience to people by leaving a layer of nutritious silt in return, which is very useful for the soil. The land of Mesopotamia, fertilized with silt, was unusually fertile, and the people who lived on it became the most ancient farmers. Already in primitive times, they learned to cultivate the land, grow crops, as well as dig canals and build dams and embankments.

What laws did they live by in Babylon?

From 1792 to 1750 BC. Babylonia was ruled by King Hammurabi, who glorified himself by inventing some of the strictest, but at the same time, quite honest and fair laws that existed in history. They are known as the Code of Hammurabi or the Code of Hammurabi. According to these laws - and there were 282 of them - the ancient Babylonians lived, worked, ran a household, traded and communicated.

The laws of Hammurabi may have saved many ancient Babylonians from committing crimes. The fact is that the Code of this king provides for the most severe punishments - the death penalty - for many atrocities, incl. theft. In addition, following the Laws of Hammurabi, a person who has been offended - hit, knocked out a tooth or injured an eye - can do the same with his offender. Those who were careless about their household were severely punished, and this hurt the neighbors: in this case, the guilty person had to sell himself into slavery, but compensate the losses to others.

Who is Nebuchadnezzar?

One of the most famous Babylonian rulers was King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled Babylonia (then it was already called the New Babylonian Kingdom) from 605 to 562. BC.

It is believed that it was under this ruler that Babylon reached its peak: it expanded, built up with new temples and palaces, and became a truly strong and reliable fortress - Nebuchadnezzar built thick (about 30 m) walls around the city and poured ramparts. It was during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon that the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built, then declared one of the seven wonders of the world.

Nebuchadnezzar proved to be an excellent military leader. Having taken the throne of Babylon after his father, he easily took possession of Syria, Palestine, Phoenicia, conquered Judea, captivating several thousand people, and also subjugated the ancient states of Edom and Tyre.

What language was used in Babylon?

The inhabitants of Babylon spoke among themselves in one of the most ancient Semitic languages ​​- Akkadian (it is also called Assyro-Babylonian). In addition to the Babylonians, the Assyrians and Akkadians, the population of Assyria and Akkad, used this language.

At one time - around 2000 BC - the Akkadian language was not only the language of Babylon, but also the official common language of the entire Mesopotamia: it was spoken by the inhabitants of all the states located on this territory. There is evidence that even in Egypt, noble people used this language to communicate.

When the Aramaic language penetrates into Mesopotamia (this happened in the 14th century BC), it very quickly wins itself "admirers", and very soon almost everyone begins to speak the new language. The former language - Akkadian - is used only by rulers. After the Neo-Babylonian kingdom was formed, they only write in the Assyro-Babylonian language, and after the 3rd century. BC. stop using it completely.

What was the religion in Babylon?

The inhabitants of Babylon, as well as all the ancient inhabitants of our planet, were very close to nature. They endowed with divine powers everything they saw around them: the sun, earth, rain, wind, thunderstorm, moon, etc. Therefore, all the gods who ruled the life of the Babylonians were inextricably linked with the forces of nature.

The main gods of Babylon were the gods Anu - the father of all the Babylonian gods, Bel - the god of the earth and Ea - the god of the underworld and fertility. They decided the fate of people living in the country, were responsible for their lives and deaths, helped and punished. In their power were the fertility of the lands, the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates - even the demons were powerless before these gods.

The Babylonians also believed in the god of the moon and plants, Sin, who was responsible not only for all the flowers and herbs of Babylon, but also for the herds. No less powerful was the sun god Samas, on whom the life of all life on earth depended, as well as the goddess of war, hunting and fertility Ishtar.

How did the civilization of Babylon disappear?

While the civilization of Babylon flourished and developed in the south of Mesopotamia, the civilization of Assyria was gaining strength in the north of this territory. For some time, Assyria was closely connected with Babylon, obeyed it, and many scientists even consider it to be part of this state.

However, over time - in the XIV century. BC. - the Assyrians became so bold that they began to attack Babylon, however, unsuccessfully: the forces of both sides were approximately equal. So it was before the king Sennacherib came to power in Assyria, who ordered the destruction of the city to the ground.

But even after such a blow, the Babylonian civilization did not disappear: King Nebuchadnezzar did everything to make his state again the most beautiful on earth. However, after the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the power of the state weakened - its rulers endlessly replaced each other, not caring about Babylon, and all this led to the fact that the Persian king Cyrus in 539 BC. seized the state and subjugated it to his power.

Walls of Babylon

Euphrates river

Text of the Laws of Hammurabi

Depiction of Nebuchadnezzar II. Babylonian cameo

Restored Ishtar Gate in Berlin's Pergamon Museum

Sennacherib at the head of the army

Ishtar Gate

Interesting fact:

Babylonian lion

• The event-tragedy for Babylon (689 BC) occurred during the period of aggression of the king of Assyria Sennacherib, who fell into a rage from the disobedience of Babylon.

Why do they close in on themselves?

"Miracles" of Babylon

• 539 - the time of the conquest of Babylon by the Persians.

  After the uprising in 479, the city lost its independence and the status of the state capital and the most important center of culture.

Babylon

Page 1

Babylon is the largest city of ancient Mesopotamia, the capital of the Babylonian kingdom in the 19th-6th centuries. BC.,

The most important commercial and cultural center of Western Asia. Babylon comes from the Akkadian words "Bab-ilu" - "Gate of God". Ancient Babylon arose on the site of the more ancient Sumerian city of Kadingir, called

whose name was subsequently transferred to Babylon. The first mention of Babylon is found in

inscriptions of the Akkadian king Sharkalisharri (23rd century BC). In the 22nd century Babylon was conquered and sacked by Shulgi,

king of Ur, the Sumerian state that subjugated all of Mesopotamia. In the 19th century coming from

Amorites (a Semitic people who came from the southwest) the first king of the first Babylonian dynasty

Sumuabum conquered Babylon and made it the capital of the Babylonian kingdom. At the end of the 8th c. Babylon was conquered

van by the Assyrians and as punishment for the rebellion in 689 it was completely destroyed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Che-

9 years later, the Assyrians began to rebuild Babylon. Babylon reached its greatest dawn during the period

New Babylonian Kingdom (626-538 BC). Nebuchadnezzar II (604-561 BC) adorned Babylon with luxury

nye buildings and powerful defensive structures. In 538, Babylon was taken by the troops

Persian king Cyrus, in 331 Alexander the Great took possession of it, in 312 Babylon was captured by one of

commanders of Alexander the Great Seleucus, who resettled most of its inhabitants in the main

the city of Seleucia, which he bathed nearby. By 2nd c.

AD only ruins remained on the site of Babylon.

From 1899 to 1914, systematic excavations were carried out at the site of Babylon by a German archaeologist

Koldevey, who discovered many monuments of the New Babylonian kingdom.

Judging by the data of these

pok, Babylon, located on two sides of the Euphrates and cut by canals, in this era occupied

rectangular territory, the total length of the sides of which reached 8150 meters. On the east coast

Euphrates was the main part of the city with the temple of the god Marduk, the patron of Babylon, which was called

“E-sagila” (House of raising the head), and a large seven-story tower called “E-temenanki”

(House of the foundation of heaven and earth). To the north was the royal palace separated from the city by a canal with a “hanging-

chimi gardens” on artificial terraces built by Nebuchadnezzar II. The whole city was surrounded by three

walls, of which one reached 7 m thick, the other - 7.8 m, and the third - 3.3 m. One of these walls was

fortified with towers. A complex system of hydraulic structures made it possible to flood the surroundings of Va-

vilona. A “sacred road” for religious processions passed through the whole city past the palace, leading to the temple of Marduk. The road, paved with huge stone slabs and bordered by fortifications

us, decorated with images of lions, led through the monumental fortress gates, which bore the name

goddess Ishtar.

Babylonia

Babylonia is a primitive slaveholding (early slaveholding) state of the Ancient East,

located along the middle and lower reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. It got its name from the city

Babylon, which was the largest political and cultural center of the state, which reached its

flourished twice - in the 18th and 7th centuries BC. Babylonia proper occupied only the middle part

Mesopotamia, from the mouth of the lower Zab (a tributary of the Tigris) in the north to the city of Nippur in the south, that is, the country of Akkad,

which in ancient inscriptions was often opposed to the country of Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia.

tamiya. To the east of Babylonia stretched mountainous regions inhabited by Elamites and other tribes.

us, and to the west stretched a vast desert steppe, in which they wandered in the 3-2nd millennium BC.

CE Amorite tribes.

Starting from the fourth millennium BC, the Sumerians lived in southern Mesopotamia, whose language

belongs to the oldest group of languages ​​of the peoples of Asia Minor.

The tribes that inhabited the middle part of the Dvu-

speech, they spoke the Akkadian language, which belongs to the Semitic group.

The oldest settlements discovered in Babylonia proper near modern Jemdet Nasr and

the ancient city of Kish, belong to the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. population here

was mainly engaged in fishing, cattle breeding and agriculture. Crafts developed. Kamen-

nye tools were gradually replaced by copper and bronze ones. The need to drain swamps and create

irrigation network led to the use of slave labor in ancient times. Growth in productive

forces led to further property and social stratification. deepening class pro-

contradictions contributed to the development of exchanges with neighboring countries, in particular with Elam, from where they brought

Pages: 1 2345

This interesting world

Tourism without risk
Life, unfortunately, is arranged in such a way that dangers await us literally at every step. This consciousness, of course, should not poison our existence. However, caution and familiarity with elementary personal safety measures are absolutely necessary. Everyone and everyone, and the traveler - first of all ...

Currency
The currency of the state is the West African CFA franc (CFA), 100 CFA francs are approximately equal to 1 French franc. Currency exchange can be done in banks and exchange offices. The use of credit cards and traveler's checks is possible only in large banks and hotels in the capital, preference is given to …

Nature
Most of the territory of Angola is occupied by a plateau with a height of about 1500 meters (the highest point is Mount Moco - 2610 m). The western edge of the plateau breaks off in steep ledges to a narrow seaside lowland. The climate of Angola is hot: inside the country it is equatorial, monsoonal; on the coast - dry, tropical ...

Babylon: the history of the greatest city of the ancient world

Ishtar Gate

Babylon ("Gate of God") - a majestic city in Mesopotamia of the Ancient World, the capital of the state "Babylonia" - in the distant past was the center of the "world kingdom". Now these are ancient ruins located about 90 km south of Baghdad (Iraq).

History of the "Eternal Home of the Royal"

The emergence of Babylon falls on the second half of the third millennium BC, on the banks of the Euphrates River in the center of Mesopotamia.

• By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. attributed to the foundation in then small Babylon of a new dynasty. When Hammurabi ascended the throne, Babylon turned into a political center and maintained this position for more than a millennium.

Interesting fact: Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi received the status of "the eternal abode of royalty."

Babylon, as the capital of southern Mesopotamia, grew rich and rapidly developed trade and crafts. Growth in the economic sector affected the appearance of Babylon, turning it into a luxurious and regal city. Changed architecture, roads and building plan.

Babylonian lion

• The event-tragedy for Babylon (689 BC) occurred during the period of aggression of the king of Assyria Sennacherib, who fell into a rage from the disobedience of Babylon.

  Sennacherib destroyed the capital, and the city that was excavated by the archaeologist Coldway is not old Babylon, but a new one rebuilt and restored.

• After the death of the Assyrian king, Nebuchadnezzar ruled Babylon. The period of his power (604-562 BC) is the era of the apogee of the development of Babylonia - economic, social and cultural.

Babylon, thanks to the military conquests of the country, became the center of the influx of material and cultural wealth. Thanks to this, grandiose reconstruction activities were carried out in Babylon, the capital became the largest and richest center of the ancient Near East.

Features of the construction and architecture of Babylon

The plan of the city was a division into 2 parts - the Old and New cities, which were located on different banks of the Euphrates. The left bank is the area of ​​the Old City. Rich estates were located here. And on the right bank of the river was the New City. Mostly ordinary citizens lived here.

You might be interested in articles:

Sights and interesting facts of Hollywood

Sights and interesting facts about the Yellow Sea

Why do they close in on themselves?

Why do people speak different languages?

The Old and New cities were connected by a huge stone bridge. Quite long straight streets ran through the whole city, dividing it into rectangular quarters.

National - cultural diversity

Babylon was a major capital, with a population of approximately 200,000 inhabitants. In addition to the Babylonians, people of other cultures, languages ​​and nationalities lived in the city. There were also forcibly brought slaves, captives. Representatives of a particular culture spoke their own languages ​​and followed their own traditions.

"Miracles" of Babylon

This legendary city was not only a powerful center, but also an incredibly beautiful city. Herodotus called it the most beautiful place he had ever seen. Gardens of Babylon (Hanging Gardens) and the Tower of Babel, which are the Wonders of the World, the gates of the goddess Ishtar, the seven-tiered Ziggurat tower and the Babylonian lion- this is what you must see if you are going to visit the ruins of Babylon.

• 539 - the time of the conquest of Babylon by the Persians. After the uprising in 479, the city lost its independence and the status of the state capital and the most important center of culture.

Later, the inhabitants of Babylon began to be resettled in Seleucia-on-Tigris, the new capital. In the end, Babylon was left with a poor settlement, which soon also disappeared. The once great, powerful city of kings and gods has turned into sandy and forgotten ruins.

More interesting articles:

How to decide on a place of rest is a problem for many, but also a very exciting activity. This is what happened to us - my husband and I did not know where to go, and therefore we decided to cast lots. And what came of it, I will tell further.

Where is the ancient city of Babylon located?

It so happened that I pulled Babylon out of the hat. And it was wonderful, because I had long wanted to see such a legendary place. We started looking for where Babylon is.

We started our search on the Internet. The remains of the ancient city of Babylon are located in Iraq south of Baghdad near the city of Al-Hill. We got there from the airport quite quickly.

From the guide in the first hours of our stay there, we learned a lot of useful information:

• the history of Babylon;
• what made Babylon famous;
• history of the Tower of Babel.

The city of Babylon, which means "gates of God", was founded on the banks of the Euphrates River and was the capital of Babylonia, which existed for 1500 years in the south of Mesopotamia in the territory of modern Iraq.

What is Babylon famous for?

In Babylon, the basis of architecture was ziggurats - these are the so-called secular buildings and palaces. These are unique architectural achievements of mankind at that time. Also, according to biblical writings, there is a legend about the Tower of Babel, which reached the height of heaven. It was built by people who spoke the same language to make a name for themselves. But according to legend, the construction of the tower was interrupted by God, who gave people different languages, and this led to a halt in the construction of the tower and the city as a whole. This great city has been razed to the ground three times by invaders, but has also been rebuilt.

Discovery of the Tower of Babel

The scientific history of the search for the tower began with several pieces of painted bricks, which were found by the German architect and archaeologist Robert Koldewey. Thanks to this, more fragments of the tower were found, and excavations began. As a result of these excavations, it became clear that a tower was built in Ancient Babylon, which was the crowning achievement of architecture at that time.

This story of the Tower of Babel, monuments, and tales of hanging gardens made my husband and I think about continuing our romantic getaway. And I hope we will visit this wonderful place again!

Introduction

The rise of Babylon in the era of the Old Babylonian kingdom (19th-16th centuries BC)

Babylonian culture

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

It is unlikely that now they are carried away by ancient cities to the extent that they study ancient Babylon. This city is known to almost every inhabitant of the earth for its Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Tower of Babel, which the Bible tells so colorfully about. In addition, the study of the ancient East is of no small interest, which helps to understand and reveal many phenomena of the modern world.

The purpose of this work is to study the history of Ancient Babylon, its culture and political and economic structure.

When studying the literature on the subject of the Ancient East, the following tasks were set:

· Analysis of sources on the problems of the development of the Ancient East;

· The study of the factors and prerequisites for the allocation of Babylon to an independent state;

· Study of the historical path of Babylon, from its formation to its political and economic decline;

· Identification of the consequences of the influence of the culture of Babylon on the subsequent development of civilization, including Medieval Europe and the Russian state.

The writing of the work was preceded by an analysis of the literature of such authors as A.V. Kostina, S.S. Averintsev and other scientists and researchers whose works are devoted to the history of Babylon.

From the textbook of the researcher Vigasin A.A., who was also studying the history of the ancient East, the following information was gleaned. The heyday of the Babylonian kingdom falls on the reign of the sixth king of the First Babylonian dynasty, Hammurabi, who was an outstanding statesman, a perspicacious and dodgy-cunning diplomat, a major strategist, a wise legislator, a prudent and skillful organizer. His research also emphasizes that Hammurabi was an excellent commander, thanks to which this king was able to subjugate and unite vast territories.

S.S. Averintsev writes the following. In Babylonia, the cult of the dead kings and the deification of the royal power itself were greatly developed. The kings were proclaimed to be immeasurably superior to the people, and their power was strengthened in the minds of the exploited masses of the people as a sacred power.

In addition, Bongard-Levina G.M. devotes his works to the study of codes of laws. She argues that the code of Hammurabi traces the principle of guilt and ill will. For example, the Babylonian king establishes a different measure of punishment for intentional and unintentional crime. Scientists note that bodily harm was still punished according to the ancient custom of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." In some articles, the class distinction of citizens is clearly traced. For example, harsh punishments were imposed on obstinate and disobedient slaves, and a person who was accused of stealing someone else's slave was sentenced to death.

babylon kingdom of hammurabi political kassite

1. The rise of Babylon in the era of the Old Babylonian kingdom (19-16 centuries BC)

In the 16th century, there was a crisis in the system on which the large royal dynasties of Ur relied, many Sumerian-Akkadian centers collapsed under the onslaught of the Amorites pastoralists, who spread throughout Mesopotamia. All this led to the decline of the centralized state, as a result of which the major political center weakened and began to fragment.

Scientists also note the isolation of the kingdom with the center in Lars, to the north of which the state begins to rise with the center in Issin. Also at that time, Mari and Ashur played a large role in the political arena in the region of the Tigris and Euphrates, and along the Diyala River, the state of Eshnuna was fighting for political independence.

In the 20-19 centuries BC. these states were in a state of internecine war. And gradually, in this war, the city of Babylon rises and gains independence, in which the Amorite dynasty reigns, the time of whose reign in science was called the Old Babylonian period.

Babylon was located in the center of the valley, in the place where the Tigris approached the Euphrates. Since the location represented a huge military benefit (it was convenient immediately for protection and defense), Babylon gradually begins to become the center of the country.

Here one can also note the convergence of the main networks of the country's irrigation life, along which the most important river and land routes of all of Asia Minor passed.

"The heyday of the Babylonian kingdom falls on the reign of the sixth king of the First Babylonian dynasty, Hammurabi, who was an outstanding statesman, a perspicacious and dodgy-cunning diplomat, a major strategist, a wise legislator, a prudent and skillful organizer."

Hammurabi skillfully created various military alliances, and after achieving his goals, he broke them as unnecessary. First of all, Hammurabi made an agreement with Larsa to protect himself during military campaigns. Thus, this allowed the Babylonian king to begin aggressive actions aimed at the southern cities. As a result of these campaigns, Uruk and Issin were subordinated. Then Hammurabi directed all his attention to the state of Mari, which overthrew the power of Assyria and was ruled by a representative of the local Zimrilim dynasty. With this ruler, Hammurabi established the most friendly agreements on all key issues.

The alliance with the state of Mari served as a support for the subsequent war with Eshnunu, which was completely defeated by the Babylonian army. Zimrilim did not claim these lands and gave the reins of government to Hammurabi. A little later, the allies attacked Larsa, whose ruler surrendered and fled to Elam, and the kingdom thus again fell to Hammurabi.

Now the entire territory of Mesopotamia consisted of two huge states: Babylon, which united under its command the entire southern and middle parts of the country, and Mari, whose ruler ruled over the rest of the lands.

Mari was a very strong and dangerous enemy for Babylon, since this state was located on the middle reaches of the Euphrates and united several nearby cities, and also subjugated the nomadic tribes that inhabited the Syrian-Mesopotamian steppes. In addition, Mari conducted trade and established a number of diplomatic relations with Byblos, Ugarit, Yamkhad, Karchemish, as well as the islands of Cyprus and Crete. During the reign of Zimrilim, a magnificent palace was built in the city, which exceeded 4 hectares in area and had premises for religious, economic and residential purposes. In the palace itself there was a magnificent throne room, which was specially decorated with frescoes, statues, terracotta baths, equipped with rooms for foreign ambassadors and messengers. The palace building also housed rooms for economic and diplomatic archives.

In 1759, Hammurabi, under the pretext of breaking the military alliance, appeared with his army under the walls of Mari, subjugated this state to Babylon, and reigned in it. But the rebellion of Zimrilim that followed this capture forced the Babylonian king to make a second campaign against the walls of the city, as a result of which Mari was completely destroyed and destroyed. After that, the state of Mari was never able to fully recover, and therefore modestly attracted its existence.

In the north of Mesopotamia, there was still a weak Assyria, but its largest cities Ashur, Nineveh and others soon recognized the domination of the Babylonian kingdom.

Scientists note that the first 35 years of Hammurabi's reign were completely spent on strengthening centralized power throughout the Babylonian state, which spread over the territory of Mesopotamia. During this time, Babylon has come a long way of development from a small city and turned into the capital of a huge Asian power, becoming a major political, economic and cultural center.

But the initial successes did not bring the desired result. Babylon included many conquered cities and regions, so to some extent its power was fragile.

All this led to an aggravation of internal contradictions that were associated with the ruin of community members, soldiers, taxpayers and defenders of the state. The state also experienced certain foreign policy difficulties already during the reign of the son of King Hammurabi. Samsuilun is trying in every possible way to maintain the prestige of royal power, building ziggurats and temples, erecting golden thrones in honor of the Babylonian gods, and laying new channels. But in the south of the country, the Elamite tribe is advancing, which gradually captures the cities of the Sumerians. Then there is an uprising in Sippar, the walls of which were destroyed during a fierce rebellion. During the reign of Hammurabi's son, political tension, instability, external wars are constantly observed, as evidenced by data on constant and numerous turmoil.

The situation in the foreign policy arena also does not favor the development of Babylon. The Kassite tribes begin to penetrate the territory of the state, and in the north-west of Mesopotamia a new state of Mitanni is formed, which cut off Babylon's access to the main trade routes of Asia Minor and the East Mediterranean coast.

The Hittite invasion of Babylonia marked the beginning of the end of the First Babylonian Dynasty and ended the Old Babylonian period.

Laws of Hammurabi. Socio-economic and political system of the Babylonian kingdom

The most outstanding monument of the Babylonian kingdom is undoubtedly the laws of Hammurabi, forever imprinted on a black basalt pillar. Also, copies of individual parts of this code book have survived on clay tablets to this day.

The code of laws of the state begins with an abstract introduction, which speaks of the divine role of the royal power of Hammurabi, that he is appointed to protect the poor, the weak, orphans and widows from insults and oppression from the powerful of this world. The code of law itself consists of 282 laws that cover all aspects of the life of Babylonian society (civil, administrative, criminal law). At the end of the code of laws is placed the final part.

The laws of Hammurabi, in terms of content and "level of development of legal thought, represented a huge step forward compared to the Sumerian and Akkadian legal monuments that preceded them." The code of Hammurabi traces the principle of guilt and ill will. For example, the Babylonian king establishes a different measure of punishment for intentional and unintentional crime. Scientists note that bodily harm was still punished according to the ancient custom of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." In some articles, the class distinction of citizens is clearly traced. For example, harsh punishments were imposed on obstinate and disobedient slaves, and a person who was accused of stealing someone else's slave was sentenced to death.

During the period of the Old Babylonian kingdom, the state was inhabited by full-fledged citizens, who were called "sons of the husband." They were legally free, but not full-fledged people, since they were not members of the community. Such people worked in the tsarist economy and were classified as slaves according to their status. If any citizen inflicted damage on a royal worker, he was punished according to the principle of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”, and the latter was entitled to a fine for the damage. If the “son of the husband” underwent an unsuccessful operation, then the doctor who performed it was punished by cutting off his hand, and if a slave died from such an operation, then his owner was only paid monetary compensation for the losses incurred. If during the construction of the house the son of the owner died, then the main contractor was punished by the death of his son. If the property of the “son of the husband” was lost, then the perpetrator was punished tenfold, returning the stolen property. In the case of theft of temple or royal property, compensation for the loss was provided in a thirty-fold amount.

During his reign, Hammurabi was concerned about the constant number of warriors and taxpayers, so he tried his best to alleviate the fate of this part of the population of the state. One of the articles of Hammurabi's code therefore limited the payment of the debt to the creditor to three years of work for him, after which the entire balance of the unpaid amount was automatically paid by the state. If a natural disaster happened and the entire debtor's crop was destroyed, then the amount of the debt and the payment of interest on it were automatically transferred to the next year. Some articles of the code of laws are also devoted to rent, which was set at the rate of a third of the harvest and two thirds of the garden.

For the legality of marriage, it was necessary to conclude a marriage contract. If a wife was convicted of adultery, she was punished by drowning in the river. If the husband forgave his unfaithful wife, then she and her lover were exempted from the punishment prescribed by law. Adultery on the part of a husband was not considered a crime, unless he seduced the wife of a free man. Sons were necessarily entitled to an inheritance if they were not involved in crimes, and the father was obliged to teach his children the intricacies of his profession and craft.

“The soldiers received land allotments from the state and were obliged, at the first request of the king, to go on a campaign. These allotments were inherited through the male line and were inalienable. The creditor could take away for debts only the property of the warrior, which he himself acquired, but did not put on, granted to him by the king.

The state took special care of trade, which brought a significant part of the income to the Babylonian treasury. Trade was carried out by special sales agents - tamkars, who were trained in the conduct of large-scale state and private trade. Tamkars carried out their activities through smaller intermediary merchants. For their service, the state allocated them land allotment, garden plots and houses. Tamkars also acted as tenants of the royal land, often they were big usurers.

Babylonian kingdom under the Kassite dynasty

The Kassites were a population of one of the mountain tribes of the Zagros, which appeared on the borders of Mesopotamia shortly after the death of Hammurabi. In 1742, the Kassites invaded Babylonia, and their king assumed the title of lord, although the real conquest of the state had not yet taken place. The invasion of the Hittites, under the onslaught of which the state could not resist, contributed to the fundamental assertion of the Kassites on the Babylonian throne.

In 1595, the Middle Babylonian period begins, which was marked by the beginning of the reign of the Kassite dynasty. It ended only in 1155.

During the reign of the Kassites, the use of horses and mules during military campaigns was noted, the use of a seeder and a plow began to be used in agriculture, a network of roads was created, and foreign trade was significantly activated. But at the same time, the country's economy is experiencing a period of stagnation, as the volume of the commodity economy has decreased and the influx of labor has decreased due to the decrease in military campaigns.

In the Middle Babylonian period, tribal associations and large families increase their importance. This was the result of the control of the Kassite clans of a large territory, they also monitored the collection of taxes, the performance of public duties. Simultaneously with the stagnant phenomena in the Babylonian economy, the process of enrichment of the Kassite clans was going on due to the creation of large private landownership, which was separated from the communal one and secured by the relevant royal decrees and laws. These laws gave the right of ownership to this or that aristocrat on the property and land granted to him, and also exempted them from paying taxes to the treasury. Such decrees were carved on special tablets - cadurru.

The centralized power under the Kassites weakened somewhat, since the heads of the noble Kassite families enjoyed a certain independence and ruled over separate parts of the Babylonian kingdom. Large cities such as Babylon, Nippur and Sippar occupied an independent position, their population was exempt from paying taxes and military service, they also had their own military contingents. Kassti power eventually assimilated with the noble citizens of Babylon.

Foreign policy during the reign of the Kassites was not very large. Egypt, Mitania, the Hittite kingdom fought among themselves for hegemony, and in this war the Babylonian state was one of the secondary figures in the military-political arena. The inscriptions of the Egyptian pharaohs say that the power of the Egyptian state was recognized by Babylon, who brought her respect and gifts, and in the 15th century stable peaceful relations were established between these two states. The Kassite kings usually sent the Egyptians donations of horse teams and chariots, bronze vessels, valuable oils, and lapis lazuli items. As reciprocal gifts, they received gold, magnificent furniture made of precious woods, decorated with gold and ivory, jewelry and ornaments.

To strengthen their political relations, the Egyptian pharaohs took the daughters of the Kassite kings as wives, but they did not marry their daughters to the rulers of Babylon, since they did not let them go from outside the Egyptian state.

When the kingdom of Egypt began to weaken, Babylon increases its demands. An unhappy tone begins to be traced in the letters. For example, the Babylonian king Burna-Buriash is outraged by the inattention of the Egyptians to his illness, as well as the small retinue and the quality of the gifts sent to Babylon. The discontent of Babylon intensifies when its rulers learn about the reception of Assyrian ambassadors in Egypt, who were dependent on Babylon. After this event, Babylon breaks diplomatic and friendly relations with the Egyptian state. Now the foreign policy of Babylon is aimed at Mitania and the Hittite state. For example, Mitania's claims to the Eastern Mediterranean coast did not meet with resistance from the Kassite rulers, and the daughter of Burna Buriasha was married off to the Hittite king.

However, the powerful powers do not take the weakened Babylon seriously. Strong Assyria inflicts a series of tangible defeats on Babylon. And the Hittites, who fought fierce wars with Egypt, did not provide any support to their ally.

Thus, the struggle with Elam, Assyria and local rulers put an end to the rule of the Kassite dynasty, which by that time had completely assimilated with the Babylonian nobility.

Culture of Babylon

Mesopotamia is one of the most ancient civilizations and cultures. It is here that the exit of all mankind from the state of primitiveness and its entry into the era of antiquity is marked. The transition from "barbarism to civilization" meant the emergence of a new type of culture, the birth of a new type of human consciousness. All this is closely connected with the spread of numerous cities, the complication of social differentiation, the formation of statehood and "civil society". New types of activity are formed, areas of management and training are distinguished, as relations between people acquire a new character.

Writing played an important role here. Its appearance marked the invention of new forms of transmission and storage of knowledge, which became the basis for the further development of science, purely intellectual activity. The inhabitants of Mesopotamia rightfully deserve the merit of the invention of a kind of writing - cuneiform. This is the most characteristic and important feature inherent in the culture of antiquity. In addition, the majestic Babylonian buildings have not reached our time, but all over the world, cuneiform tablets are kept in museums telling about the life, customs, foundations and laws of society of that time.

Mesopotamian writing appears at the turn of 4-3 millennia BC. Before it, there was a system of "account chips", which cuneiform gradually replaced and supplanted. There is an opinion that in the earliest pictographic system there were over one and a half thousand drawings, and each such sign corresponded to a certain word, in rare cases several words.

The most ancient pictographic messages are a kind of puzzles that were fully understood only by scribes and those people who were present when the tablets were written. Such tablets were a kind of written confirmation of various agreements and transactions, and also served as an indisputable source in the event of various disagreements. The first such texts are testaments regarding the transfer of property, dedication to the gods. The most ancient written sources also include educational texts in which the meaning of one or another sign was deciphered.

A fully cuneiform system developed only by the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. In addition, there was an expansion of the sphere in which cuneiform was used. Construction reports and calculations appear, collections of proverbs, lists of names of mountains, countries, rivers, lakes, positions, the first bilingual dictionaries are published.

The cuneiform script is also adapted to their needs by the neighbors of the Mesopotamians, the Akkans. In the second millennium cuneiform was borrowed by the Hittites, and then on its basis a simplified syllabic cuneiform of the inhabitants of Ugarit was created, which influenced the development of writing among the Phoenicians, which later gave rise to the Greek alphabet. Thus, cuneiform in many respects influenced the appearance and development of this region.

Ancient Mesopotamian literature has been preserved and has come down to our days in a relatively large amount. About a quarter of the literary texts that existed in Mesopotamia are now open. This is due to the fact that clay tablets are very well preserved, and even if they are in the ground for a long time, they are subject to minor damage.

Education in Babylon was based on rewriting texts of artistic and everyday content. Libraries were even created at schools, in which clay tablets with information on many branches of scientific knowledge were stored. Libraries were also built at the palaces of kings and temples, which, in addition to literature, contained administrative and economic documents. The most famous library of that time is the collection of books of King Ashurbanipal. The tsar himself oversaw the systemic acquisition of books, by his order, copies were made from all ancient literary sources that were kept in temples and private collections. The literature of ancient Mesopotamia also includes literary works of folklore content - songs, poems, fairy tales, proverbs and sayings. The most outstanding monument of that time is the Epic of Gilgamesh.

In this work, the idea of ​​the eternal life of people, to which the Sumerians so aspired, is fully embodied. Gilgamesh, "being half god, half man, and having lost his friend, the forest giant Enkidu, sets off in search of immortality." In his search for a friend, Gilgamesh even visits the kingdom of the dead, but the flower of immortality he found was stolen by a snake, so people never managed to gain immortality.

The presence in Babylonian society of a trend that marks a certain departure from the traditional religious worldview is evidenced by a wonderful literary monument known as the Dialogue between Master and Slave. In this work, the master, speaking with his slave, expresses various wishes one after another, and the slave approves of each of these desires of his master. When the latter renounces his desire, then the slave here agrees with him, while citing weighty arguments in favor of the refusal. Thus, the futility of all the aspirations and thoughts of the master was proved: his hopes for the mercy of the king, hopes to find oblivion in a feast or in love for a woman, hopes for salvation with the help of magic, prayer or sacrifice. It is pointless to follow the usual prescriptions of virtue, for death equalizes everyone, as the slave claims, turning to his master: them was kind?" The dialogue ends with the statement that a master who wishes to kill his slave will outlive him by only "three days".

Mathematics and astronomy also left a deep mark on culture. Modern people use the positional system of numbers created by the inhabitants of Mesopotamia and the sexagesimal account, dividing the hour into 60 minutes, and the minute into 60 seconds. Achievements in the field of astronomy were especially significant.

The creative flourishing of Babylonian mathematical science falls on the 5th century BC. At that time, the most famous schools were in Babylon. Uruk, Borsippa and Sippare. Scientists from these schools developed a system for determining the lunar phases, established the length of the solar year, and solar precessions were also discovered. Thus, the level of mathematics of that time was in no way inferior to the development of mathematics of the Renaissance in Europe.

Medicine and chemistry were intertwined with magic. Elaborate sorcery actions accompanied, for example, the manufacture of a melting furnace, its installation and work on it. Our knowledge of Babylonian chemistry is, unfortunately, still limited due to the difficulty of understanding the relevant cuneiform texts, often deliberately, for magical purposes, obscured by the ancient scribes.

Zoology, botany and mineralogy found their expression in nothing but long lists of animal, plant and stone names. However, these lists can rather be attributed to philological reference books, which were so rich in Babylonian scribal schools, which paid great attention to the study of the language, its vocabulary and grammar.

Interest in the problems of language was largely due to the fact that among the Babylonian priests, the Sumerian language, which had died out by that time, continued to play the role of a sacred language. In addition, without knowledge of the Sumerian language, it was impossible to correctly apply the script for the Akkadian language, which was originally formed on the basis of the Sumerian language. Therefore, the Babylonian scribes were forced to study, along with their Akkadian language, also a second language alien to them. This study made them more conscious about their native language as well. Along with the vocabulary, the Babylonians began to study grammar for the first time.

Of great interest is the Babylonian political system, as well as the system of military affairs, law and historiosophy. The administrative system of Assyria was later adopted by the Persians, who passed it on to Hellenistic rulers and Roman Caesars. In ancient Rome, there were many traditions that took their origins in the court everyday life of the kings of Mesopotamia.

The emergence of the idea of ​​the transfer of successive power from one city to another is also characteristic, which later served as one of the sources for the concept of "Moscow - the third Rome". An interesting fact is that the insignia of the Byzantine and Russian tsars come from Babylon.

In Babylonia, a number of local gods were revered, identified with heavenly bodies. An important role was played by the deities of the Sun and the Moon - Shamash and Sin. Yshtar, corresponding to the Sumerian Inanna, the goddess of Uruk, was personified by the planet Venus. In the blood-red planet Mars, they saw Nergal, the god of war, disease and death, the main god of the city of Kutu. The god of wisdom, writing and counting Nabu (which corresponds to the West Semitic nabi - "prophet"), revered in Borsippa, neighboring Babylon, was compared with the planet Mercury. Finally, Ninurta, the god of successful war, was compared with the planet Saturn. God Marduk was identified with the largest planet - Jupiter. The seven main astral (star) gods, together with the triad - Anu, Bel (Enlil), Ea - played an important role in the religion of Babylon. In honor of these gods, temple towers were built either in three floors (heaven, earth, underground water) or in seven (seven planets). A relic of the worship of the Babylonian astral gods is the modern seven-day week. In some Western European languages, the names of the days of the week and currently reflect the names of the seven deities.

In Babylonia, the cult of the dead kings and the deification of the royal power itself were greatly developed. The kings were proclaimed to be immeasurably superior to the people, and their power was strengthened in the minds of the exploited masses of the people as a sacred power.

The Babylonian priesthood influenced the masses of the people with the splendor of the cult in huge temples with their majestic stepped ziggurats. Information has been preserved about a large number of temple utensils made of gold, as well as about the richest sacrifices made daily on the altars of temples. The deification of royal power, the suggestion of obedience to the gods and the king, the protege of the slave-owning nobility, were the basis of the cult.

In the history of Mesopotamia, this or that state was repeatedly put forward, which acted as a contender for dominance over its neighbors. The most successful contender for dominance over the entire valley was, as shown above, Babylon. This was reflected in the role that Marduk, the patron god of Babylon, began to play in the main myth of the universe.

Conclusion

Babylon is rightfully a unique state, and it is very difficult to single out at least one more state that would surpass it in its development.

After reading the literature on the Babylonian kingdom, I can conclude that the culture of Mesopotamia represented a transitional period between antiquity and the beginning of the emergence of a new type of thinking, which scientists call rational. This conclusion is made on the facts of the emergence of mathematics, writing and astronomy.

I also believe that the literary and scientific sources of Babylon in many respects anticipated the masterpieces of Greek literature, served as the basis on which the science of the Renaissance was then based.

In addition, I believe that the political, social and legal system of the Babylonian state was quite perfect for that time, although it had such shortcomings as punishment depending on social status, the presence of a large number of slaves.

But despite this, Babylon is rightfully a treasure trove of world culture, science and architecture.

Bibliography

1.Averintsev S.S., Alekseev V.P., Ardzinba V.G., ed. G.M. Bongard-Levin. Ancient civilizations.- M.: Thought, 1989.-479 p.: ill.

.Afanaseva V.K. and others. Art of the Ancient East. - M .: higher. school., 1971.- 567 p.

.Vigasin A.A., Dandamaev M.A., Kryukov M.V. History of the Ancient East: Proc. for stud. Universities studying in the specialty "History" .-M .: higher. school, 1988.- 416 p.

.Erasov B.S. Culture, Religion and Civilizations in the East: Essays on a General Theory. M.: higher. school, 1990.- 456 p.

.Kostina A.V. Culturology: textbook.- M.: KNORUS, 2010.- 336s.

.Matveev K., Sazonov A. Land of the Ancient Mesopotamia.- M.: Higher. school., 1986.- 467 p.

.Nemirovskaya L.Z. Culturology. History and theory of culture. - M. higher. school, 1992.- 346 p.

.Nemirovsky A.I. Myths and legends of the Ancient East. - M.: higher. school, 1994.- 563 p.

.Reader on the history of the Ancient East / ed. V.V. Struve and D.G. Raeder. M., 1963.- 680 p.

.Reader on the history of the Ancient World / ed. V.G. Borukhovich. Saratov, 1987. - 560 p.

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Send an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.