Myths of ancient China. Ancient myths of China: Creation of the world and people Chinese myth of the origin of the world

Good afternoon, dear readers - seekers of knowledge and truth!

Chinese culture is perhaps one of the oldest in the world, and myths and legends are what it started with. Legends were composed about folk heroes and passed from mouth to mouth, they also became characters in the first written works, masterpieces of fine art, and were reflected in religion.

So, the topic of our today's conversation is Chinese mythology. In the article below, we will analyze in detail its foundations, mythical heroes - both people and animals, spirits, demons. You will also learn how the mythology of the Middle Kingdom developed and how it was reflected in art. And, of course, you will find a lot of curious Chinese myths.

The material turned out to be so extensive that it simply did not fit into the framework of one article, so there will be two of them - do not miss the continuation.

Well, let's start diving into the atmosphere of Ancient China, filled with myths and legends!

Fundamentals of mythology

Mythology is a whole branch of science that studies various legends, myths, stories that tell about folk heroes, gods, spirits, explaining the vision of the world, questions of the creation of the Universe and the appearance of many phenomena. Chinese originated in the 3-2 millennium BC, when a civilization appeared on the territory between the famous Huang He and Yangtze rivers.

China remained isolated for a long time, lived in some isolation from the rest of the world, and therefore managed to preserve its originality and color. So, for example, if the ancient Greek or Roman gods are known to us as incredible beauties, then the ancient Chinese hardly look like them: they are bright, colorful, diverse and often do not look like people at all, but they have remarkable strength, supernatural abilities and powerful energy.

In general, the mythology of the Middle Kingdom is heterogeneous, it has a certain syncretism: the myths of antiquity, Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and later folklore are combined here. In addition to religious movements, real historical figures, totem representations of local residents, as well as numerous philosophical treatises, affected its formation.

The latter, preserved in the form of fragments, make it possible to bring together various myths and form a general idea. These include the following works (all dates are BC):

• "Shu Ching", or "Historical Book", period from the 14th to the 11th centuries.
• "I Ching", it is also "The Book of Changes", the turn of the VIII and VII centuries.
• Chuang Tzu, 4th century.
• "Lezi", the interval between the 4th century BC and the 4th century AD.
• "Shan Hai Jing", which translates as "The Book of Mountains and Seas", from the 4th to the 2nd centuries.
• Numerous works and poems of the poet Qu Yuan, IV century.
• "Huainanzi", referring to the II century.
• A treatise by the philosopher Wang Chun entitled "Critical Judgments", 1st century.

One of the main distinguishing features of local mythology can be called the so-called euhemerization. In other words, often the characters of myths were real people who died and went down in history as some kind of deity, their stories were distorted, acquiring mythical features.

Fuxi is the mythical first emperor of the Celestial Empire, the deity is the ruler of the East. According to the accepted Confucian calendar model, Fuxi ruled from 2852 to 2737. BC.

Most often this happened with rulers, kings, emperors, as well as with high-ranking officials and valiant warriors. In this case, the deities took on the form of a person. Because of this, it is often difficult to draw a line between real historical events and fictional ones.

Often divine beings had the form of various animals. Also, according to Chinese beliefs, many natural phenomena, as well as hills, rivers, mountains, had their own spirits.

Creation of the Universe

One of the basic myths tells about the appearance of the world. It is known as the "myth of chaos", or in Chinese - "Hun Dun".

This tradition claims that before there was nothing but emptiness, absolute darkness and chaos, where vague images wandered, like fused pictures. There was no heaven, earth, water. This is also evidenced by the treatise Huainanzi.

Then water arose, or rather, water chaos, from which two beings of a divine nature later appeared, two ancient gods - Pan-gu and Nyu-wa. This event was the beginning of the world, it was then that the earth and the sky were divided.

Many researchers argue that initially Pan-gu and Nui-wa were heroes of legends of different nationalities - Pan-gu originated in the southern lands, and Nui-wa - in the southeast of Ancient China or in the southwest of modern Sichuan.

Pan-gu was a powerful being and the first ancestor of everything on earth. As he himself grew, heaven and earth became more and more separated from each other, and natural phenomena and objects also appeared.

Image of the deity Pangu

And if Pan-gu was not a direct creator, because the change of the world happened along with its growth, unconsciously, then another being, the goddess Nyu-wa, was a demiurge - a creator. She was endowed with the face of a woman, but the lower part of the body was depicted as a snake or dragon.

It is believed that it was Nui-wa who created everything around, and later saved the world from the flood. She created people from rocks and clay. And when, as a result of the fierce battle of the gods, the sky partially collapsed, she repaired it herself: she tore off all four paws of a giant tortoise and propped up the sky with them.

Another character of the ancient Chinese myth is Fuxi. It has the appearance of a bird and a man at the same time. Fuxi taught the ancient tribes important occupations: hunting, preparing meat prey, fishing, making nets and other fishing gear.

One of the legends brings Nu-wu and Fuxi together, as a result of which they create a strong family. Since then, among other things, Nu-wa has become the patroness of the family, marriage and marriage.

Fuxi and Nuwa

Main mythical animals

The main character of the legends of the Middle Kingdom is, of course, a dragon. Archaeologists are raising a lot of ancient artifacts from underground, where you can see this mythical beast. However, his images are still found everywhere today: on the facades of houses, in the form of bas-reliefs on temples, like small home figurines, in the paintings of famous Chinese artists, and even on imperial attire.

Ancient Chinese seal with dragon

Folklore also contains many sayings about dragons. Such love for these animals is not surprising - they carry a huge number of symbols, personifying:

• the power of the elements;
• virtue;
• prosperous and rich life;
• consent, peace;
• imperial power;
• heaven.

The ancient Chinese believed that dragons were endowed with special magic and absorbed all the qualities of other animals. According to legend, they could descend to the ground, but preferred to soar into the sky and plunge into rivers, lakes and the sea. Knowing how to maneuver between heaven and earth, they were conductors between two worlds - human and divine.

Lantern Festival in China

What is even more surprising, the imperial power was considered to be given by heaven, bestowed precisely by dragon messengers. Therefore, the rulers were relatives of dragons.

In modern China, a whole festival with processions and dances is dedicated to the dragon. It is usually celebrated every year on May 5th.

By the way, if you are interested in learning more about the Chinese dragon, then we have a special article for you here.

The myth of the dragon mother

The legend tells the story of the mother of dragons, or in Chinese - Lun Mu ("lun" is translated as "dragon", "mu" - "mother"). Once upon a time there lived an ordinary earthly woman. Once, by the river bank, she noticed a large white stone.

Looking closer, she realized that in front of her was an egg. She took him home with her, where the egg warmed up, and five small lizard-like snakes hatched from there. The woman decided that she would raise these creatures herself.

Dragon Mother Lung Mu

Time passed, the lizards grew into large dragons, and she still took care of them, fed them, gave her best, although she herself lived in poverty. When the dragons grew up, they also began to take care of the earthly mother, helping her in every possible way. Thus, the dragons became the personification of filial love and respect, and the woman - maternal care.

Her five sons turned out to be water spirits who knew how to reproach the elements and change the weather. In one very dry year, all the peasants suffered from crop failure, and at the request of the mother, the sons sent rain from heaven. It was then that the locals named the woman Lung Mu.

When she died, the animals turned into humans and buried her. Today, often in the Celestial Empire, you can find temples erected in honor of Lung Mu.

types of moons

Dragons in the Celestial Empire are revered so much that there are more than a hundred species of them. In addition, there are several classifications.

The first divides them by color, with dragons of a certain color responsible for a specific part of the world:

• Qinglong - azure, is responsible for the eastern sector, has compassion.
• Zhulun - red, guards the south side, patronizes water bodies, as well as family ties, the birth of children.
• Bailong is white, responsible for the western direction, and endowed with honesty and virtue.
• Huanglong is golden, he can be addressed with requests for forgiveness, prayers that he will convey to the gods.
• Xuanlong is black, the guardian of the northern part, who lives in magical reservoirs.

Bailong white dragon

In addition, there are four main moons:

• Shanlong - controls the elements, winds, thunder, lightning and thunder. Appears in the form of a creature with a human face, the body of a dragon and a huge belly. And although Shanlong almost does not fly, he can ascend to heaven and swim through them, often merging due to a similar color. Peasants and ordinary people try not to anger him, as he is able to send prolonged downpours or, conversely, drought.
• Tianlong - the guardian of the sky and the tranquility of the gods, has a body of white or azure color, rarely depicted with wings. Its main distinguishing feature is five toes on its paws, while the rest of the dragon representatives have three or four.
• Fitanlun is the keeper of the treasures hidden underground. He lives in underground caves and has a special wisdom, as evidenced by the pearl decoration in the lower part of his face.
• Dilun - is responsible for the water element, all reservoirs and deep rivers, as well as for productivity. He himself lives under water, at a depth, in the incredible beauty of the palace complexes. According to legend, when someone gets there, he receives gifts from Dilun and returns home.

Green Dragon Qinglong

Conclusion

This was the first part of our material, which introduces readers to the mythology of the Middle Kingdom. Do not miss the continuation of this article - it will tell about other, no less interesting myths, introduce you to the rest of the mythical animals of China, negative characters, and also tell you about the further history of legends and traditions.

And to always stay in touch with us, subscribe to the blog, and we will discover new facets of mysterious Asia together.

See you soon!

And, accordingly, their civilization as the original culture of the local region, let us dwell on the migration hypothesis.

Research by modern sinologists points to two areas where the Chinese could come from: East Turkestan (more precisely, the Tarim Valley) or the Kunlun Mountains (this region is more often indicated).

Another theory is based on the more or less long residence of the Chinese in the most remote settlement located in China on the way from Akkadia. This hypothesis is consistent with recent reports that the Khotanese civilization came from the Punjab in the 3rd century BC. e.

Some scholars dispute the Akkadian origin on the grounds that the first Chinese rulers were identified with the Babylonian rulers, and the Chinese Po-Bzings (Cantonese Bak-Zings) with the Bak-Sings, or the tribes of Baks, but the hypothesis does not at all exclude their Akkadian origin.

Obviously, in any case, migration to China occurred gradually in the direction from Western or Central Asia directly to the banks of the Yellow River. It is possible that the Chinese also traveled southwest through Burma and then moved northwest through what is today called China.

The settlement of these lands thus took place from the southwest to the northeast or in a northeast direction along the Yangtze River and further north, and not at all from north to south, as was commonly believed.

Objections to the southern origin theory

The last route we have outlined raises a number of objections; most likely, the hypothesis associated with it appeared in order to provide additional arguments to support the theory that the Chinese came from the Indochinese Peninsula.

The hypothesis is based on the fact that among the ancient Chinese ideograms there are images of tropical animals and plants, and also on the fact that the most archaic language forms are found in the south, that both Chinese and Indochinese groups of languages ​​are tonal.

However, these and similar facts are refuted by the assumption that the Chinese arrived from the north or northwest gradually, group by group, and those who came later pushed the earlier arrivals to the south, so that the most ancient and homogeneous tribes of the Chinese were found precisely in the places indicated by us. .

Then it turns out that the tonal languages ​​of the Indochinese Peninsula should be considered as the languages ​​of the first migration groups. As for ideograms, animals and plants of the temperate zone, rather than the tropical zone, are more common in them.

But even if it were possible to prove that it is these animals and plants that today are found mainly in the tropics, this statement cannot serve as proof that the Chinese came from the tropics, because once the climate of Northern China was much milder than now, and animals such as tigers and elephants lived in dense jungles; later they really began to meet only in southern latitudes.

Movement of nations from north to south

The theory of the southern origin of the Chinese, which we will discuss below, assumes a gradual spread of Chinese tribes from the southern or central regions to the north, but there is no doubt that there was a movement in the opposite direction at the same time.

Linguistic research data shows that in the areas of the modern provinces of Western Gansu and Sichuan, there were people who were ethnic Chinese. Over time, they moved into the territory of modern Tibet and are now known as Tibetans.

On the territory of the modern province of Yunnan lived representatives of the Shan people, or Lao (modern Laotians); under the threat of the Mongol invasion, they had to move to the peninsula located in the south, and become Siamese. In Indochina, without entering into family ties with the Chinese, lived the Vietnamese, Khmers, Mons, Khazis, Colorens (some of them scattered over the mountains of Central India) and other tribes that inhabited South China in prehistoric times. As they moved south, the Chinese were forced out and went in the opposite direction.

The advent of the Chinese

Thus, it seems unlikely that the Chinese could have come from East Turkestan to the banks of the Yellow River, where the first traces of their settlements are found. This is the area where the provinces of Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan converge.

Then, that is, approximately in the 2500s or 3000 BC. e., the arriving tribes were distinguished by a relatively more developed culture. The lands located to the east and west of this territory were inhabited by local tribes, with whom the Chinese waged continuous wars, as well as with dangerous animals, with dense thickets. But the Chinese nevertheless mixed with the local population through interethnic marriages and gradually began to arrange permanent settlements - the centers of the emerging civilization.

Kunlun Mountains

In Chinese mythology, these places were considered the abode of the gods - the founders of the Chinese nation. It should be noted that they do not at all coincide with the real Kunlun range - a range of mountains separating Tibet from Chinese Turkestan, as well as from the Hindu Kush. The foregoing gave grounds to correlate the Kunlun mountains with Babylon. This uncertainty was the reason for the unification of the Central Asian and East Asian theories of the origin of the Chinese.

One of the myths tells that the god Nui-wa (Nuy-gua) lived in the Kunlun mountains - presumably one of the creators of people, according to another myth - and the very first ancestors of people - Nui and Kua. At first glance, this view seems very encouraging. However, this legend is actually of Taoist origin.

Reaching a height of 4800 meters, Mount Kunlun is the center of the world. On it is the source of immortality, and here the four main world rivers originate. This plot is presented not only in Chinese, but also in Hindu, as well as in Sumerian mythologies, so the information does not seem to us particularly valuable.

Unfortunately, it will take too long to discuss in detail such interesting problems as the origin of the Chinese and the emergence of their civilization, or the similarities between China and Western Asia in pre-Babylonian times and other issues, but we are forced to limit ourselves to the most general discussions.

Preliminary conclusions

Anticipating the appearance of more reliable information in the future, we will express preliminary considerations, rather even a hypothesis: the ancestors of the Chinese people came from the west, from Akkad, Elam or Khotan, but most likely from Akkad or Elam through Khotan.

The ancestors of the Chinese moved towards the territory occupied by modern China, constantly, over a long period of time. At first, they settled around the bend of the Yellow River, and then began to spread to the northwest, west and south. They conquered, absorbed or displaced the indigenous people from their lands, gradually spreading through the territory known today as South and Southwest China.

The local peoples came from Western Asia during the Neolithic period, that is, much earlier than the tribes who arrived around the 25th or 26th centuries BC. e. Assimilated among the Chinese who lived in the south, they left a deep mark on the culture of Japan. Note that even today they differ from the northern Chinese externally, linguistically, and in all spiritual and psychological make-up, material culture and economic structure.

natural conditions

China is located within the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones. The southwestern part of the territory is occupied by the Tibetan Plateau (average height is about 4500 m), framed by the mountain systems of the Himalayas, Karakorum, Kunlun, Nanshan and the Sino-Tibetan mountains; in the west and northwest there are plains (Tarim, Dzhungar, Alashan) and mountains of the Eastern Tien Shan. The eastern part of the country is lower; in the northeast - the Manchurian-Korean mountains, the Greater and Lesser Khingan, the plains in the Sungari river basin; to the south - the Loess Plateau, the Great Chinese Plain; in the south - the Nanling Mountains, the Yunnan-Guizhou Highlands.

The climate in the west is continental, in the east it is predominantly monsoonal. Average January temperatures range from minus 24 °С in the north and in the Tibetan Plateau to plus 18 °С in the south, and in July on the plains from plus 20 to 28 °С. Annual rainfall varies from 2000-2500 mm (in the south and east) to 50-100 mm (in the north and west). Typhoons are frequent in autumn. Western regions - the area of ​​internal flow; in the east there is an extensive network of rivers, the main of them are the Yangtze, Huang He, Songhua, Zhujiang. The most significant lakes are: Kukunor, Dongtinghu, Poyanghu. To the west is the Takla Makan Desert, to the north is part of the Gobi Desert. Forest covers about 8 percent of the area.

Initially, the Chinese occupied a relatively small area of ​​their future country. It was an oblong-shaped area located between the 34th and 40th degrees of northern latitude and the 107th and 114th parallels. It was located around the bend of the Yellow River and covered an area of ​​​​about 5 million square miles, gradually stretching towards the sea coast in the northeast.

About a million people lived here, after the invasion of strangers, the population doubled. It is this territory that can be called the place where China was born. The first, feudal, period of its existence lasted approximately two thousand years, from the 24th to the 13th centuries BC. e.

In the first centuries of the monarchical period, which lasted from 221 BC. e. until 1912 of our time, the territory of China expanded to the south - it included all eighteen provinces that made up the formation known as the Celestial Empire, or True China (the part of the territory located east of Gansu and most of Sichuan were not included).

By the time of the Manchu conquest, at the beginning of the 17th century, China occupied the entire territory located between 18 and 40 degrees north latitude and 98 and 112 degrees east longitude (it consisted of eighteen provinces and was called the Middle Kingdom), which included the vast remote territories of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, Kukunor, Tibet and Korea, as well as Vietnam and Burma, whose rulers were Chinese vassals. The territory of China thus extended over 13 million square kilometers, including 5 million square kilometers occupied by eighteen provinces.

In general, the land turned out to be mountainous in the west and east, but as it approached the sea, it became more even. The relief of the country was determined by three mountain systems and huge alluvial (alluvial) plateaus, with soils in the northern, western and southern parts. The whole territory of China was crossed by three huge and about thirty large rivers with many tributaries reaching the most remote corners.

In terms of geological features, the large alluvial soils of the plateau were located over bases of granite, red sandstone, or limestone. In the north, the plateau consisted of loess - a rock that arose as a result of the petrification of sand brought by the winds from the Mongolian plateau.

The most ancient mountains were in the north, as they moved south they became younger, traces of volcanic activity were sometimes noted. They are rich in minerals: coal and iron are mined here, as well as gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and jadeite.

Of course, the climate of such a vast territory is heterogeneous. In the north, winters are long and harsh, summers are hot and dry, and there is a short rainy period in July and August. In the south, summers are long, hot and humid, and winters are short. Temperatures also vary accordingly: from forty-degree heat in the south to almost the same frosts in the northern part of the country.

The lowest level of precipitation (40 millimeters) is in the north, in the south it is five times higher, in other parts of the country the amount of precipitation is also different. Typhoons rage in the south from July to October.

Vegetation, wildlife and agriculture

The flora of China is abundant and surprisingly diverse. The main agricultural crop is rice, its cultivation area covers the northern half of the country. A large area of ​​its cultivation is located south of the Yangtze River, east of the Dongting Hu and the great Xijiang River, in the northern part of Guangdong Province. Other major crops include wheat, barley, maize, millet, legumes, yams, sweet and regular potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, squash, ginseng, bamboo, indigo, pepper, tobacco, peanuts, poppy, melon, cotton.

In 350, tea cultivation began in the southern and central provinces. However, its plantations exist in the far north, say in Shandong - the main area for the cultivation of this crop in modern China.

A variety of fruits were also grown there: dates, mulberries, oranges, lemons, pamelos, persimmons, pomegranates, pineapples, figs, coconuts, mangoes, bananas and other fruits traditional for the countries of the East.

The fauna of China is no less rich: tigers, panthers, leopards, bears, sables, otters, monkeys, wolves, 27 species of ruminants and many rodents. Rhinos, elephants and tapirs still live in Yunnan province today. There were also about 700 species of birds and numerous varieties of fish and insects. Among domestic animals, we note the camel and the buffalo.

social organization

As noted above, the Chinese fought over territories with the locals. As the incoming tribes spread, the autochthonous population was simply destroyed, assimilated with them, or pushed south.

In the end, the non-Chinese tribes had no choice but to develop the marshy places, the forests of the south, or the hard-to-reach mountainous areas, of little use for habitation. So much labor was required to clear land from the forest that new settlements often looked like islands in the thicket, similar to the way the people displaced here lived in enclaves, surrounded by the dominant Chinese around them.

In the III century BC. e. clashes between the Chinese and the northern nomadic tribes begin, which lasted for many centuries. In the first six centuries of our era, there was communication with the Parthian kingdom, Turkey, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, India and Indochina, in the VIII century - with the Arab world. Europe got acquainted with the life of the Chinese thanks to tireless Christian travelers.

From the 10th to the 13th centuries, the north of the country was occupied by the Khitans, and soon the entire empire at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries was under the rule of the Mongols for 88 years. Over the next four centuries, trade and cultural ties were maintained between them.

Permanent diplomatic relations with Western neighbors were established after a series of wars that were fought in the XVIII-XIX centuries. At the same time, the Chinese rulers always refrained from any alliances, because they were completely confident in their own invincibility. Since 1537, as a result of wars or agreements, foreign powers gained control over Chinese territories and organized their settlements there. Under pressure from Western countries and the Japanese, China lost a number of border territories and vast possessions on the islands.

As an agrarian country, China constantly felt the need for a single national idea that could unite the country, so any outside interference was seen as a tragedy and a violation of the general peace.

Anthropological features of the population

The first tribes that came to Northern China, without exception, belonged to the white race, but in the appearance of modern residents, practically nothing has been preserved from the appearance of their distant ancestors. They were distinguished by widely spaced almond-shaped eyes, a fold of skin over the inner corner of the orbit.

The hair is black, straight, coarse, facial hair is sparse, beards are rare. The skin of the inhabitants of the southern regions is darker than that of the northerners.

The volume and weight of the brain is slightly below average. Emotionally, the Chinese are calm, hardworking, unusually hardy, courteous and even ceremonial. They are characterized by a high sense of duty, at the same time they can be both timid and fearful, and cruel.

Until recently, the Chinese were relatively conservative, prone to stereotyped thinking, special adherence to traditions, sometimes unimaginative, apathetic, suspicious and superstitious.

As a result of mixing with other races, the character traits of the Chinese have changed in many ways in the process of natural physical and intellectual development.

Family relationships

Separate elements of the marriage ceremony that have survived to this day indicate that the original form of marriage was borrowed, and the Book of Songs testifies to the same. Most likely, as a stable form (as opposed to relationships based on the purchase of slaves), marriage existed already in ancient historical times. Although his monogamous form was formally legalized in China, in fact, a man, in addition to his wife, could have several concubines, their number depended only on his material capabilities. The higher his social status was, the more concubines and maids there were in the house. Up to several hundred women lived in the palaces of rulers and princes.

In earlier times, and throughout the history of China, there was polyandry (polyandry), which, however, did not spread as widely as polygamy.

Usually a man married at twenty, a girl married at fifteen, celibacy after thirty for men and for women over twenty was officially condemned.

In Shandong province, wives usually turned out to be older than their husbands. Marriages were concluded with the assistance of a matchmaker who received the consent of the parents for the betrothal, the opinion of the young was not taken into account. There was no official marriage registration.

After the conclusion of the contract, the parents on both sides blessed the newlyweds. Sometimes the bride came to the groom's house, where special ceremonies were performed in order to receive the patronage of family spirits.

After a short stay in the groom's house, they came to the house of the bride's parents, where similar rites were performed. The marriage was not considered valid until there was a return visit.

The woman was practically powerless in society, while the husband became the sovereign master and could even kill his wife for treason. Divorces were common, with the right-handed husband always being the one who could reject his wife simply for being disobedient or even for talking.

The widower could not stand the terms of mourning and almost immediately remarried. If the widow acted in this way, it could be regarded as a violation of fidelity to the deceased husband. It was not uncommon for a widow to self-mutilate or even commit suicide to avoid remarriage—then, after death, she was honored for this deed. After all, a woman continued to be considered married both in this and in the next world, so remarriage was perceived as a violation of fidelity. This did not apply to a man who, after remarriage, added another family member to his clan without violating anyone's rights.

Marriage during the period of the monarchy and during the republic

The matrimonial system of early classical times, which we have already written about, practically did not change over the long period of the monarchy - from 221 BC. e. to 1912. As before, the main thing was to give birth to a boy who would inherit power and continue the veneration of ancestors.

No one appeared to be forced to marry, but bachelors and spinsters were rare. The concubines were subordinate to the wife, who was considered the mother of both her own and their children. However, this did not at all mean her supremacy: unconditional obedience was also required from her; she could not own property, and her husband could force her to do anything, including prostitution.

The latter was widespread, although marriage was entered into at a fairly early age and a man could have concubines. In fact, the institution of concubines turned out to be nothing more than legalized prostitution.

After the establishment of the republic in 1912, Western tendencies are observed in the family relations of the Chinese. The essence of the family contract remained practically the same, the most noticeable changes were felt in the conduct of the marriage ceremony.

Now she has approximately equally connected the old and new traditions, for example, marriage contracts were concluded that regulate the property rights of the parties in a subsequent divorce. Behavior in the family has also changed, and women's behavior to a greater extent than men's. The bride's national dress allowed wearing a European-style hat. Having gained greater freedom, women began to go outside their own homes, sit down at the table with their husbands, attend social events, began to dress and have fun in a European way.

Let us note one of the completely unexpected consequences of the liberation of women, which even the most far-sighted sociologists did not foresee. Most of those Chinese who did not object to the Europeanization of their family life, appearing together with their wives in society, often found that they were inferior to their sociable and mobile companions, and even more so to European women.

Women from families that steadily follow the precepts of their ancestors, still doing heavy housework and completely powerless, as throughout the history of the country, could not compete with the elegant, European-educated wives of their neighbors, and only these women could be taken out by their husbands. light without losing one's own dignity. True, we add that the number of marriages of Chinese men with European women in percentage terms turned out to be insignificant.

Parents and children

The power of parents over children was the same as the power of men over wives. Often there was infanticide, due to poverty: first of all, girls who were not really needed "in the household" were killed. This happened mainly in three or four provinces, while in other places it was not so widespread.

Although under the Qianlong Emperor (1711-1799) the punishment for infanticide was introduced, it only applied to the killing of children for the purpose of using their bodies for medical purposes; thus, it can be argued that officially infanticide was practically not forbidden.

In cases where child abuse became too scandalous, local officials issued decrees condemning such acts.

By making a purchase or entering into a contract, a man could adopt or adopt an "acquisition" as a member of his lineage, with all the corresponding rights, regardless of origin; the sons of all wives and mistresses, regardless of seniority, had equal rights. Illegitimate received half of the inherited share. During the lifetime of parents or grandfathers, the estates were not divided.

The head of the family was considered only a life tenant of the family property, endowed with certain rights. Personal inclinations were not taken into account. Only respect for parents mattered. Usually the heir was established by oral or written order.

In the absence of a father, any man from this family could become the head of the family, but most often the younger brother. The guardian had full power and could dispose of the income from the estate under his tutelage, but did not have the right to alienate property.

There are many examples in history of the extraordinary devotion of children to parents, sometimes it manifested itself in self-mutilation or even the act of suicide - this was done when it was a condition for healing parents from incurable diseases or to save their lives.

Political history

As already noted, coming from the west, the Chinese limited their settlements to the territory where the modern provinces of Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan are connected. It extended eastward to the shores of Haizhou Bay. Between one and two million people lived in an area approximately 1,200 kilometers long and 600 kilometers wide.

During the first two thousand years of recorded history, the borders of the region changed significantly. Beyond the undescribed and largely undetermined frontiers of the south, however, were the zhou, or colonies, mostly populated by the Chinese. During the period we are considering, they significantly expanded their lands by capturing neighboring territories.

In the XIV century BC. e. In ancient China, the early slaveholding state of Yin was formed, conquered in the 11th century BC. e. the Zhou tribe. Zhou state by the 7th century BC. e. divided into a number of independent kingdoms. At the end of the III century BC. e. in China, the centralized empire of Qin arose, which was replaced by the empire of Han (206 BC - 220 AD). In the III-VI centuries AD. e. China broke up into a number of independent states. At the end of the VI century, the country was united under the rule of the Sui dynasty. During the reign of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) there was a long peasant war of 874-901. In the 12th century, northern China was conquered by the nomadic Jurchen tribes, and in the 13th century, China was conquered by the Mongols, whose yoke was overthrown in 1368. At the end of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the peasant war of 1628-1645 broke out. To suppress it, the Manchus were called to help; they suppressed the unrest and established their dominance in China (their Qing dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911).

In the middle of the 19th century, the aggression of European states began against China, as a result of which, under the treaty, onerous conditions were imposed on China, and the country was divided into spheres of influence of the USA, France and Great Britain. They helped the Qing government suppress the Taiping peasant war (1850-1864). By the beginning of the 20th century, China had become a semi-colony, and a liberation movement was launched in the country under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen.

In 1911, a popular revolution took place, as a result of which the Qing dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was formed. In 1912, Sun Yat-sen created the Kuomintang Party, and in 1921 the Communist Party of China was founded. Until 1927, there was a civil war between provincial rulers in China. In 1927-1928, the territorial integrity of China was restored. Chiang Kai-shek became the chairman of the national government in Nanjing. In 1931, Japan captured Manchuria and created the state of Manchukuo on its territory. In 1937, Japan began an open war to seize all of China. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, civil war broke out again in China. The armed forces of the People's Liberation Army of China occupied all of mainland China and forced Chiang Kai-shek to flee to Taiwan; On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed, led by Mao Zedong.

State administration

In the most general form, the structure of the Middle Kingdom can be represented as follows: the emperor and his subjects. The emperor was considered the Son of Heaven, who embodied the will of the almighty Heavenly Sovereign. He not only ruled the state, but was also the chief legislator, commander in chief, high priest and steward of ceremonies.

The entire population was divided into four groups. The first, shi, included officials (later also scientists), they were divided into shen - officials (titled nobility) and shen shi - petty nobility; the second group, the nun, included the farmers; in the third, kun, - artisans, artisans; in the fourth group, shan, - merchants.

The whole territory of the country was divided into provinces, the number of which varied from nine in early times to thirty-six under the first emperor (221 BC). Initially, they were separate states, the governance structure of which repeated the central government of the Middle Kingdom (Zhongguo). The origin of this self-name refers to the reign of the Zhou dynasty (XI century BC - 221).

The location of the central government and, accordingly, the capital of the empire changed several times. Initially, the capital was in Pinyang (modern Shanxi province). During the feudal period, the capital was transferred eleven times, and finally the city of Yin became it.

The provincial administration was in the hands of twelve governors. They led the provincial nobility. Civil and military power were not separated. The tribal nobility and large landowners were often at the court of the ruler, courtiers were often sent to manage other regions in the rank of princes.

The emperor was considered the guarantor of the legislative and administrative powers. Each ruler had the same rights within his province. The revenues received by the treasury consisted of land and poll taxes, which were levied on farmers, as well as tithes, which were paid by artisans, merchants, fishermen, and lumberjacks. Separate taxes were taken from the tribes conquered by the Chinese.

Throughout the imperial period, the structure and principles of the administrative system changed little, some changes occurred only towards the end of the monarchical period. However, in 1912 they continued to believe in the divine origin of the emperor, who united in his person the highest civil, legislative, military and spiritual power; the same division of the nation into classes was preserved.

The main ministries were located in the capital - Beijing. Most of them existed in feudal times. All affairs in the provinces were managed by a small group of officials, which included the governor, the military commander, the local treasurer, and the judge. In addition, there was also the position of governor, to whom two or three provinces were subordinate at once. He controlled the collection of duties, was in charge of the armed forces, and relations with foreign states.

Initially, appointment to a position was carried out by inheritance or by choosing a successor. Later, state examinations were introduced to test the professional suitability of candidates. Typically, the examinee took part in public competitive written examinations on knowledge of the legislative system. The formation of the procedure for conducting examinations was fully completed by the 17th century and was abolished in 1903, when official positions were opened to graduates of colleges organized on modern principles.

In 1912, after the overthrow of the Qing monarchy, China became a republic with an elected president and a parliament consisting of a senate and a house of representatives. Various government departments were reorganized in a Western fashion, then a huge number of new institutions of government were established. However, a common constitution was never adopted.

Legislation

As in other feudal and monarchical states, Chinese legislation consolidated the system of subordination, subordination to the ruler, and did not contribute to the establishment of justice in society. The laws were intended to accuse and punish, not to correct the condemned.

For an offense or a crime, they were punished very severely: they burned out a brand, cut off their nose, cut off their legs to the knees, some were castrated; for serious crimes they were sentenced to death. Sometimes they punished the whole family, clan and even the neighbors of the condemned. It can be said that the punishing sword of the law did not know mercy and restrictions.

However, despite the cruelty of punishments, characteristic of all the states of the Ancient World, the Chinese created an excellent legislative system. This activity began with the renewal of the Code of Punishment, adopted under the ruler of Mu in 950 BC. e. The first permanent law code was published in 650 BC. e., and the last - in 1647 AD. e. titled Laws and Ordinances of the Great Qing Dynasty.

The largest legislative monument is the "Classical Laws" compiled by Li Gui, a statesman who was in the service of the first ruler of the state of Wei (4th century BC).

Initially, it established only two types of punishments - the death penalty and beating with sticks. A variant of the first was a "painful death", or transformation into a "man-pig", when the condemned man's tongue was torn out, and then his arms and legs were cut off. It was introduced around 1000 AD. e. and banned in 1905. Traitors, women who killed their husbands, murderers of an entire family (at least three people) were sentenced to such a punishment. Although the most cruel forms of punishment were prohibited by law, they were still applied in many places until the end of the monarchy. From antiquity until the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of blood vengeance for murder was also preserved.

Torture of the accused began already in the courts. In order to obtain a confession, without which no sentence was ever passed, the accused were placed in stocks, hung by tied fingers and toes, chained or tied in a twisted state. I note that even after the fall of the monarchy, as well as 4000 years ago, the true meaning of the concept of "due punishment" had a special meaning for the Chinese.

By the end of the Manchu rule, the judicial system began to be significantly reformed, which was also facilitated by the pressure of foreign powers. As a result, a new criminal code was adopted. It is noteworthy that even after the proclamation of the republic, a significant part of the population still supported harsh laws, fearing that their abolition would lead to disturbances in public peace and the loss of "Chinese specifics." The new code forbade excessively cruel punishments and torture, retaining only decapitation, hanging or strangulation.

A careful reading reveals that it was modeled after Japanese law; and at the same time, it was an imitation of the Western penal code, and therefore completely out of touch with the conditions of life in China. The Republican authorities quickly realized that it should be modernized so that it becomes a convenient, accurate legislative tool that meets the Chinese mentality.

The practical application of the law was in the hands of police officials, who interpreted it in accordance with their own interests. Even someone acquitted by the Supreme Court could be kept in jail until they were stripped to the bone. It should also be noted that the idea of ​​a “fair trial” that is subject only to the law, which is the basis of the criminal code, has remained an unrealizable dream.

local government

The county was the main unit of local self-government. All orders of senior officials were carried out by district chiefs, who were full-fledged rulers in the field. His duties were quite diverse: he was responsible for the collection of taxes, the execution of imperial decrees, was in charge of public works, religious rites, was a judge of first instance in criminal and civil cases, the head of the prison and the police.

The lowest administrative unit was considered whether - the community, which was led by a foreman - lizhang. It included at least a hundred households. The community was divided into smaller chia, which united ten households; the head of the jia was the headman - jiazhang. On the wall of each house was hung a sign with the names of all adult men. Every ten jia were bao and obeyed the chief. From the 17th century A.D. e. there was a system of mutual responsibility - baojia. Each member of the family was responsible for all the others. In 1873, a man was sentenced to death for digging up the grave of a member of the imperial family. His entire family of eleven was sentenced to death.

Army device

In the pre-state period, there was no army at all in China. If necessary, everyone who could hold a weapon in their hands changed the plow and hoe for sabers, bows and arrows and went to fight. Each village had its own militia. When the fields were cleared after the harvest, the peasants practiced the martial art.

The ruler personally led the troops, under his command there were six armies, controlled by six highest representatives of the nobility - this was the basis of the government army. On campaigns, the ruler took with him tablets with the names of his ancestors, as well as the gods of his land and fertility.

The main part of the army were chariots drawn by four horses. They housed warriors with spears, javelin throwers and archers. In order not to interfere with each other, the archers stood on cothurni. In total, there were about a thousand chariots in the army. During battles, chariots were located in the center, archers on the left, and spearmen on the right flank. As a strike force, war elephants were used, on which archers were also placed. Flags and kites were used for signaling, the troops advanced to the sound of gongs, drums and pipes. After the victory, the army commander presented the emperor with the ears of the leader of the defeated warriors.

After the establishment of absolute monarchy, the army became regular. All men between the ages of 23 and 56 were taken into military service, although in other years twenty-year-olds could be taken. If necessary, for example, when declaring war or repelling external aggression, men were called up again.

Military service lasted two years. Initially, recruits were trained, after which they were sent to garrisons stationed throughout China. Some of them, after training, were sent to remote garrisons located in fortresses that stood along all the borders of the empire. There, the conditions of service were the most difficult. We do not know whether this duty was part of the mandatory two-year service, or whether hired soldiers served on the border.

In the 6th century A.D. e. in China there was a huge army of about a million and a quarter, but it changed depending on the circumstances. In 627 a.d. e. there were 900 thousand people aged 20 to 60 in permanent combat units.

During the Mongol dynasty (1280-1368) there was also a fleet of 5,000 ships, controlled by 70,000 trained warriors. The Mongols completely changed the tactics of warfare and clearly improved the fighting skills of the Chinese.

In 1614, the Manchus, who captured China, established an army consisting of "eight banners", which included units of the Mongols, Manchus and Chinese. The local population organized a "Green Standard Army", divided into land and sea forces, replacing the regular troops with "courageous", jung - warriors who were included in the lists and called up depending on the circumstances.

After the war with Japan in 1894, the army was reformed along European lines; changes concerned uniforms, weapons, the order of conduct of hostilities. Similarly, the fleet was reformed and became more modern. The army began to be treated with respect, as in other countries. For a long time, a soldier, like a priest, was considered a person who did not produce useful products, so he was treated disrespectfully.

Simultaneously with the recognition of the need to defend the country, it became clear that the army must protect the country not only from obvious enemies who threatened it from land or from across the sea, but also from their secret accomplices who could seize command of the army, thereby gaining control over the entire military system.

Professional associations

In the feudal period, there were professions of healers, musicians, poets, teachers, prayer writers, architects, scribes, artists, fortune-tellers, organizers of ceremonies, orators and many others. All of them in one way or another were connected with religious cults, which predetermined their close relationship. And then the author of a historical work could simultaneously be a statesman, scientist and even a general. In one personality, the talents of a writer and teacher, musician and poet were combined. Priests usually carried the functions of a healer. At the same time, experienced doctors also met, but there were few of them, and there were no female doctors at all.

There were also veterinarians who treated domestic animals, and there were also musicians, who usually belonged to the poorest segments of the population. The most respected were literate people who knew how to draw up business papers and mastered the art of calligraphy.

Educational institutions

Schools, academies and universities were located in villages, counties, regions and provinces. Education was divided into stages: "primary" and "higher, or large, education." There were special schools for teaching dance and music; it is known that there were libraries. Associations of lovers of literature existed not only in the capital, but also in other cities.

Regardless of what form and direction education took, it was standard and constituted the first step for an official to rise through the ranks. Mandatory for the applicant was not only knowledge of the Buddhist canon, but also the writings of Confucius, Mencius, as well as the ability to write poetry and prose writings. Knowledge of the art of calligraphy was also required, because the text should not contain a single incorrectly or carelessly written hieroglyph.

Literacy education began from childhood, and literary predilections were formed at the same time. Education was not cheap, so often only one or two family members could receive a full education. As a rule, they sought to occupy a certain post in order to improve the situation of their family. In Western countries, elementary education was universal and anyone could receive it.

The path to knowledge, as mentioned above, began at an early age, and this tradition continued for many centuries. At first, the students mechanically memorized not only simple texts, but also the works of Confucius and other classical authors.

This state of affairs continued until the abolition in 1905 of the old competitive examination system, which was replaced by the modern one introduced in schools, colleges and universities throughout the country. The new system revives the Chinese spiritually, and its results will eventually become apparent to the entire world community.

The bulk of the population were farmers, artisans and merchants. Among them, professional skills were passed down from fathers and grandfathers to sons and grandchildren. Departure from tradition was considered an insult to one's ancestors. The elders showed how to work, developed the appropriate skills and natural abilities in children.

Charitable institutions also existed in China: hospitals, almshouses, orphanages; insurance and loan banking associations, tourist clubs, trade associations, anti-opium associations, funeral homes, and many other institutions on the model of Western organizations developed throughout the country.

Intentional mutilation of the body

Like some other ancient peoples, such as the Maya Indians, the Chinese are known, although few, cases of deliberate mutilation of the body. They must be distinguished from mutilations of natural origin, received during the war or as a result of the punishment for a crime.

Their application was prescribed by custom and was deliberate, and in some cases even dictated by law. Traditionally, the reshaping of the skull in infants has been done with bandages to narrow it towards the apex. Bandaging of the feet of girls is widely known. It came into use around 934, although some believe it was much earlier, around 583. However, the custom did not immediately become widespread, most likely, at least a century passed before footbinding became a tradition.

An unusually painful operation was performed at the age of six or seven: the girls were bent to the sole of all the toes, except for the big one, pressing them with bandages. Every week the bandages were tightened tighter.

Gradually, the sole took on an arched shape, resembling a lotus flower. Such a foot almost did not allow the woman to move.

Where this custom came from is unknown. It is believed that the basis was the desire to copy the small legs of the imperial concubines. They were especially admired by Emperor Li Houzhu of the Tang Dynasty. He had a concubine, Yao Nian, whose feet resembled lotuses.

In addition, at the age of 12-14, the girl's chest was tightened, since it was believed that her figure should "shine with the harmony of straight lines." A thin waist and small legs were considered signs of grace.

Wearing braids and shaving the front of the head was a symbol of slavish dependence on the Manchus for men. This tradition was introduced in 1645 when they conquered China. The absence of a scythe was considered a violation of the imperial decree. Footbinding and wearing braids were only abolished in 1912, when the monarchy fell and China became a republic.

Funeral rites

Over the long period of their civilization, the Chinese have developed an elaborate system of burial rites. As Li Zhi remarks, "ceremonies are the greatest achievement of people, for which it is worth living."

The Chinese believed that death is just a state of suspended activity, when the soul leaves the body, but can return there even after a long time, because the Chinese were in no hurry with burial: they fed the corpse; having risen to the roof, they loudly called out to the soul, begging her to return. Finally convinced that the soul could not be persuaded to return to the body, they placed the deceased in a coffin and buried it. At the same time, he was provided with everything necessary for ordinary life (food, clothing, wife, servants). From the point of view of the Chinese, the life of the deceased continued in the next world.

Having forced or persuaded the spirit to enter the memorial tablet that was used during the burial rite, it was brought back to the house, installed in the tomb, in the main hall, and a hieroglyph was drawn shu, meaning "master", and worshiped her. It was believed that this would propitiate the spirit of the deceased. If the offerings were made constantly, then the spirit that left the body did not harm those who lived in the house, whom it left.

Parting with the deceased was accompanied by piercing cries, screams, stomping, beating oneself in the chest. In ancient times, even clothes, housing and personal belongings were given to the deceased. Relatives moved to shelters made of clay, fasted or ate only unpeeled rice, slept on straw. All conversations were only about death and burial; the performance of official and public duties, marriage ceremonies were postponed, it was not allowed to play music and leave the family clan.

During the long period of the monarchy, funeral rites became more and more refined and majestic. Although after the establishment of the republic the customs were no longer observed so carefully, nevertheless, in their main features, they were preserved.

The death of a family member was a very heavy burden for many, and this was not only due to the postponed marriage ceremonies.

Friends were sent notifications of the unfortunate event. After receiving it on the set days, the addressee was obliged to send gifts, money, slaves. He was to arrive himself and join the lamentations of hired mourners, as well as attend the prayers read by the priests. It was believed that the funeral rite would not be completed and would bring harm to loved ones if all the ceremonies were not performed at the right time or the household neglected its individual elements. The same was true for the marriage ceremony.

Whereas in the West cemeteries were organized graves, in China a cemetery belonged to a family or clan. Usually these were picturesque places with neatly planted trees, between which there were burial mounds and tablets.

The cemeteries looked like villages, and the graves looked like houses. Usually, a huge marble turtle was erected to the north of the grave, on the back of which was placed a tablet with an inscription that a European would consider a tombstone.

The tombs of the last two imperial dynasties, Ming and Qing, are majestic structures that stretch over a vast area. Traditionally, such buildings were located on the slopes of hills and were turned to natural or artificial lakes or seas.

In Egypt, the burial structures of many rulers have survived, but in China, only those mentioned above have survived to this day. Usually competing dynasties destroyed the graves of their predecessors. Despite such vandalism, China has the most majestic ensemble of imperial tombs.

The peculiarity of social relations

There were special prescriptions that determined all types of relationships between people: the relationship of the younger to the older, the higher to the lower and to equals.

The bureaucracy differed in the shape of the headdress, the cut of clothes, emblems, weapons, tablets for writing, the number of servants, the number of horses, the height of their houses. Both everyday life and the activities of officials were regulated to the smallest detail. Visits, forms of address, presentation of gifts were carried out in strict accordance with certain rules that were known to everyone and strictly observed by all members of society. Any Chinese child memorized these rules, like three lines from the book "Ashi Ching", and strictly observed them.

The etiquette adopted in China was not only different from the Western one, but was diametrically opposed, because of which misunderstanding, excesses and, as a result, alienation constantly arose. In this regard, most often they recall the order of taking off the hat in front of the emperor and the nature of ancestor worship.

As a rule, the foreigner was not aware of the traditions of China. In particular, it is not customary to take off your hat when entering a house or temple, shake hands with your master, express approval by clapping your hands - after all, in old China, they clapped their hands to ward off sha-shi - deadly influence of evil spirits. Clapping your hands, approving the statement of the Chinese, as Europeans unaware of national customs do, is not allowed, because this can be regarded as an insult.

If our diplomats had known and observed these subtleties, they might have been able to avoid many complications, and sometimes even wars.

Habits and customs

Several times a year, the Chinese held holidays. One of them is the beginning of the New Year. On this occasion, an incredible number of fireworks were arranged, people had fun in their homes, drank and ate delicious food. For a few days we went to visit friends and relatives. It was believed that on the eve of the holiday, the kitchen god Tuan Nien descended from Heaven to learn about the sins of people and then report to the Heavenly Lord. So that Tuan Nien's mouth would be sealed and he could not tell too much about what he saw on the ground, he was fed with honey and other sticky foods.

They cleaned the plots and houses, pasted new paper images of the guardian gods on the front doors, hung out strips of red paper with hieroglyphs containing the wishes of happiness, wealth, good luck, and long life. They were fixed on tables covered with a red tablecloth. Everywhere there were flowers and decorations: garlands, festive flags.

Business life stopped, the celebration continued during the first half of the first lunar month.

The holidays ended after the three-day Lantern Festival. He was born during the Han Dynasty, two thousand years ago. In front of all the buildings, countless lanterns of all sizes, shapes and colors were lit, except for white or a shade of unpainted matter, for these colors were considered mourning.

About 800 years later, that is, about 1200 years ago, they introduced innovations: paper dragons several hundred meters long slowly moved along the street. They were carried on their heads by many men so that only their legs were visible, so it seemed that huge snakes, wriggling, were slowly crawling along the street.

In addition to the holidays of the Four Seasons, celebrated on the days of equinoxes and solstices, eight others were celebrated, four of which were associated with the veneration of spirits. Let us name the Early Spirit Feast, which took place on the fifteenth day of the second lunar month, and the Feast of the Tombstones. The latter came about on the third day of the third lunar month, when the graves were put in order and special offerings were made to the dead. The Middle Spirit Feast took place on the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month, and the Late Spirit Feast on the fifteenth day of the tenth lunar month.

It is believed that the Dragon Festival on boats (on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month) was celebrated in memory of the poet Qu Yuan, who threw himself into the river, unable to withstand the palace intrigues and intrigues of the courtiers. The main content of the rituals were requests for sending down abundant rains for a good harvest.

The name reflects the meaning of the holiday, it takes place in the form of a competition on multi-rowed boats in the form of dragons. At the same time, texts of conspiracies are attached to the doors of dwellings, a special kind of rice pudding is eaten and intoxicated drinks are drunk.

On the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, the Midsummer Festival is celebrated, the Europeans call it Memorial Day. Then the women worship the moon, offering pies and fruits as food. It is believed that on this day the gates of purgatory open and hungry spirits come out to enjoy everything that people offer them for a month.

On the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, the Chun-Yang festival was held, when anyone could climb a high place, a mountain or a temple tower to fly a kite. It was believed that longevity could be achieved in this way. From that day on, the season of flying kites came off. Over the next few months, the Chinese launched dragons, centipedes, frogs, butterflies, and hundreds of other ingenious creatures into the sky, which were controlled with the help of the simplest mechanisms, using the power of the wind. They rolled their eyes, made various sounds, moved their paws, wings, and tails. There was a complete illusion that there are living beings in the sky.

The origin of this holiday, according to legend, is associated with a warning received by a scholar named Huan Jing from his mentor Fei Jianfang from Henan, who lived during the Han Empire. One day, the spirit of a mentor appeared to a scientist in a dream and predicted that a flood would soon occur. In the morning, Huan Jing gathered his household and together with them moved to the hill. Indeed, soon there was a flood, and their village was flooded. Upon returning, Huan Jing found that all of his pets had died. He immediately made plentiful sacrifices to the gods and celebrated this day as a holiday for the rest of his life.

Sports and games

The first sports competitions of the Chinese were games held during the holidays, such as archery. The games were accompanied by exercises of a military nature. Favorite pastimes were considered hunting or counting games, chess (“the game of war”), badminton, throwing darts (for example, into a jug with a narrow neck), butting (the combatants wore masks with horns and were located on the shoulders of the attacker).

Since that time, walking on stilts, football, throwing discs, rowing competitions, dog racing, cockfighting, kite flying, as well as dancing and singing puppets have been known - this is how the Chinese rested and had fun from ancient times.

Over time, most of the games were forgotten, so they came up with new entertainment. Before the fall of the monarchy, during the reign of the Manchus, it turned out that badminton remained popular. They practiced lifting logs loaded with heavy stones; their length was about 1.5 meters, and at each end there was a load of 30-40 kilograms.

Also mentioned are kite-flying, quail-fighting, playing cricket, releasing birds for seeds thrown into the air, walking through fields, playing chess, mahjong or dice. They made bets on winning cricket, on winning quail fights. Children's games were numerous and varied: they competed in strength, speed of reaction, accuracy and dexterity.

Wandering troupes performed on platforms built opposite the temples. Magicians, ventriloquists, acrobats, fortune-tellers and storytellers gathered crowds of people, amused and entertained them. Even then, there were stationary theaters, and until recently, women's roles were played by men. There are well-known shows showing naked women through a special opening.

In modern times, most of the outdoor games were preserved in China. It should be noted that indoor entertainment from the West did not take root well.

Private life

In private life, in the rites of birth, death and marriage, all customs were carefully observed, which also reflected belief in supernatural forces. Usually woke up early. Shops closed at midnight, until recently the streets were poorly lit or remained dark, passers-by or their servants walked with lanterns. Public baths are known in all cities and towns.

Wealthy houses usually hired watchmen. Ate twice a day. In taverns or restaurants, dinners were given for friends, they were accompanied by musical or theatrical performances. Sometimes they were given after a meal.

In the descriptions of Europeans about the life of the Chinese, it is said that the place of honor was to the left of the head of the family: putting a guest there, they expressed special concern for his safety. It was traditionally located opposite the door so that the guest could see the incoming person and react accordingly.

Birds and lap dogs of the Chihuahua breed were kept as pets. Such a small yellow dog was considered a reliable watchman in the house and cleared the house of debris. In the homes of the upper and middle class, you could often see aquariums with goldfish. Rich people usually arranged gardens with decorative stone slides, ponds, built gazebos, planted beautiful shrubs and flowers.

Shaving the head or beard, as well as cleaning the ears and massage, were done by barbers. Men did not wear sideburns, and mustaches and beards appeared only after forty, until this time hair grew very slowly. Rarely met elderly owners of dense facial hair, as in the West. Both men and women carried snuffboxes, smoking pipes and fans. Educated members of society grew long nails. Women and girls, regardless of origin, used cosmetics abundantly.

Industry and economy

In traditional China, there was a strict division of labor between men and women. Men worked in the field or were engaged in crafts, mining, trade, and participated in hostilities.

The women took care of planting mulberries and silkworms, spun, weaved, embroidered, mended old clothes, drilled and sharpened needles, glued tin foil, made shoes, and collected and sorted tea leaves.

Gradually, trade developed, which led to the specialization of certain areas: cod fishermen gathered in Shanxi, carpenters in Yizhou (Anhui), porcelain manufacturers in Yaozhou or Gansu.

As for the land, it quickly passed into private hands, and the owner began to distribute it among his relatives or lease it. Usually the lands were organized according to the well system. Around the public nine, cultivated by eight farming families, usually for the benefit of the state, eight private allotments were organized in the form of squares.

From the beginning to the end of the monarchical period, only the emperor gave the right to inherit the land. The rest of the land was considered state-owned. It was mainly rented by wealthy clans or families and could not be inherited or alienated. The owner paid an annual tax on it in kind in the form of a part of the crop or in cash.

To be exempt from military service, it was possible to make monetary compensation in the form of a direct tax. Initially unknown, slavery existed as a special institution throughout the entire period of the monarchy.

The number of products produced depended on the intensity of labor of people and animals, only in the 20th century machines began to be widely used. The distribution of agricultural products was carried out from numerous centers, they were sold at fairs, in shops and markets. The main trade routes by land and sea have hardly changed over the past two thousand years.

Chinese merchants traded with Western Asia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Arabia. Since the 17th century, the exchange has been mostly with European countries. The main means of transport were horses, wagons and boats. Sailing ships were gradually replaced by steamboats from 1861.

The exchange was of a barter nature. In exchange for fabrics, tea, porcelain and handicrafts, the Chinese received imported European goods. Silver bars of different weights were used as a means of payment, the samples changed during the reign of the new emperor. Until recently, copper money was used as a bargaining chip, paper signs also became other means of payment and silver bars remained.

Simultaneously with the development of trade with other countries, silver dollars and colonial coins came into use. Various measures of weight and length in the north and south began to be partially calculated in the decimal system. But in everyday trade within the country, in the provinces, the traditional duodecimal measure was kept.

crafts

Hunting, fishing, cooking, weaving, dyeing, carpet making, metallurgy, glass, brick and paper making, printing, and bookbinding were almost in their infancy. Mechanical crafts were largely borrowed and not distinguished by skillful execution. But pottery, carving and lacquer technology were at an unusually high level of development, the products made by Chinese masters surpassed all world analogues both in quality and beauty.

Agriculture and livestock

Since ancient times, the Chinese have sought to cultivate as much land as possible. With the exception of periods after devastating wars, they carefully looked after every patch of arable land. Even the mountain slopes and terraces they used to grow a variety of crops. However, the poverty of the peasants and the inaction of the government prevented the full development of agriculture and led to losses.

Usually in the north they got two crops a year, and in the south - five in two years. Farmers made up at least two-thirds of the entire working-age population. And although in most cases the most primitive technique was used, the incredible fertility of the soil and the enormous industriousness of the peasants, along with the thoughtful use of fertilizers, made it possible to feed the huge population of the country.

The main crops cultivated were rice, wheat, barley, buckwheat, maize, kaoliang, several varieties of millet, and oats. In addition to them, legumes, peas, oilseeds (sesame, rapeseed) crops, fibrous plants (hemp, Chinese nettle, jute, cotton), starchy root crops (yams, sweet potatoes), as well as tobacco, indigo, tea, sugar, fruits were grown.

True, the cultivation of fruits was of a spontaneous nature, because scientific methods were not used. Plants were not replaced, but grafting, pruning, and selection were carried out, through which they achieved both enhanced development and the creation of dwarf plants.

Thanks to the high culture of agriculture, it was possible to obtain abundant crops of vegetables even on small patches of land. In the 20th century, another problem arose: due to low profitability, small farms could not afford expensive foreign equipment; in addition, in most cases it turned out to be too cumbersome or difficult to operate.

Cattle breeding was also developed. Let's name the main types of animals: pigs, donkeys, horses, mules, cows, sheep, goats, buffaloes, yaks, poultry, ducks, geese, pigeons, as well as silkworms and bees.

The recently established Ministry of Agriculture and Trade became the successor to the collegium of agriculture, production and trade; now it is adapting western methods to the specifics of China, so good results can be expected.

Aesthetic sense and morality

The Chinese have always admired beauty and found it in plants, music, poetry, literature, embroidery, painting, and porcelain. Flowers were bred almost everywhere, since almost every house had at least a small garden. Tables were often decorated with flowers in vases, fruit baskets or sweets. Music came into use because it corresponded to the teachings of Confucius.

Paper with hieroglyphs written on it was valued so highly that it was impossible to throw it on the ground or step on it. They admired the art of the theater, professional storytellers. For the success of any enterprise, rituals were performed in temples.

However, until recently, the streets and public places were not cleaned, the norms of behavior in society were not respected.

In China, the elders in age and social status were traditionally deeply revered, and the authority of parents was unshakable. The possibility of “lying for good” was recognized, that is, it was not condemned in any way and deceit was not prosecuted. Theft was not uncommon. Illegal requisitions of the rulers were considered a burdensome but inevitable burden.

Morality existed in society, but early marriages and concubinage were practiced, debauchery, drunkenness and corruption were known. Women were not considered full-fledged creatures, they were deprived of their rights, and they were treated despotically.

Moral principles were set forth in classical writings, and the foundations of the legislative system were formed accordingly. Clan squabbles, battles between clans were frequent, blood feud could last for several generations, because its execution was considered a sacred duty. Ritual suicides were welcomed, often committed under the influence of an unjust accusation. Based on the Buddhist dogma of the immortality of the soul, many aspired to bodily immortality. The dignity of a man was considered endurance and the ability to hide his feelings.

At the same time, honesty and loyalty to this word were highly valued, especially among merchants, which was expressed in the saying: "The word of a merchant is stronger than stone." However, such relations were obligatory only between the Chinese, while deceiving a foreigner was not considered a sin.

Many smoked opium until its use became severely punished (in 1906-1916). But despite the ban, opium continued to be smuggled in, and bribed officials tried to ignore poppy cultivation.

From ancient times, courtesy and courtesy were considered the norm of behavior, and sometimes the observance of etiquette went to extremes. Politeness often masked true feelings. Behind the eloquent compliments could hide the deepest dislike for each other. Many were addicted to gambling, such as mahjong, sometimes while losing huge fortunes.

Cult organizations

Like other peoples, the Chinese have created a system of beliefs, where you can distinguish several different layers. Traditions about deities, good and evil spirits, and invincible heroes, inherited from Ancient China, occupied a large place in the spiritual life of the people during the Qing Dynasty.

It is difficult to even roughly calculate how many gods were worshiped by the Chinese people. There was not a single craft, not a single sphere of life where people could do without appropriate patrons. When numerous fires broke out in Beijing in April 1908, people attributed them to the spirit of fire that descended to the earth. “When this sinister deity returns to his abode, the fires will stop,” they said.

The main one was the cult of Heaven. The emperor was considered the representative of the Heavenly Sovereign on earth, so only he could perform the rites of worship to Heaven. He was considered the high priest, and the nobility, statesmen, civil and military officials acted as his assistants, depending on their rank.

The worship of Heaven was performed in the Temple of Heaven, which was at the same time a palace, a place of audience and a meeting room of the Council. There they made offerings to Heaven, spirits of mountains and rivers, ancestors and all spirits. All these cults were also performed in special sacred places, and they had their own order of rituals and ceremonial. Along with the state cult of Heaven and Earth, “great”, “medium” and “small” offerings were made to the spirits in the form of animals, silver, grain, jade, as well as seasonal offerings to the altars; the clergy dressed in clothes characteristic of a particular season of the year.

Supporters of each of the existing currents, Taoism and Buddhism, had their own temples and monasteries. Priests and monks served in numerous village and roadside temples, at the tombs of their ancestors. In sacred places they worshiped the gods of thunder, rain, wind, fertility, and agriculture.

Attitudes towards Taoism and Buddhism changed, beliefs were either encouraged, then allowed, then persecuted, but the hierarchy of the clergy and the very structure of the cult survived into the 20th century. Today in China adherents of several religions coexist.

The main place among them is occupied by Confucianism, which for many years was the state religion. No less widespread is the cult of ancestors. Another group are adherents of Taoism. The observance of various annual holidays, such as All Souls Day, when offerings are made to wandering and hungry ghosts, reflects the close relationship of the three religions (San Chao).

As the high priest, the emperor was personally responsible for the peace and order in the country, he confessed to Heaven and prayed that he would be punished for all the sins that his subjects commit. It has already been said above that, in addition to their usual duties, statesmen, nobility and officials performed the duties of priests of the state religion.

Even in the most exquisite ceremonies performed on special occasions in Buddhist temples, outwardly there was nothing resembling one or another form of Christian worship, but it is easy to see in them a resemblance to solemn masses or "common prayer." Simultaneously with the worship of the Buddha, the Chinese could seek help from the local god or turn to spirits to avoid misfortune.

After China became a republic in 1912, the state cult disappeared, and religious customs were not so strictly observed, and schools began to operate in many temples.

religious ideas

The most important part of the Chinese belief system is the cult of ancestors. It became the basis of the state religion - Confucianism. Under the influence of the ideas of Taoism, which turned from a philosophical system into a cult one, traditions of worshiping spirits developed. The Chinese believed that the souls of dead people move into animals, insects, trees, stones.

Originating in India, Buddhism was based on the belief in the Buddha, who had superhuman powers. He believed that from a deified human being, the soul moves into someone or something: an elephant, a bird, a plant, a wall, a broom, or any piece of inorganic matter.

These ideas corresponded to the Chinese mentality, so Buddhism deeply entered the culture, influencing both Taoism and ancient beliefs. Buddhism, with its concern for the future, was more understandable than Confucianism. The preaching of compassion and the preservation of any life turned out to be an urgent need. If there was no belief in the transmigration of souls, then the existence of people would be much more difficult.

With the exception of ancestor worship, religion did not drastically affect the daily life of the Chinese. It is unusual for them to express love for God as vividly as in Christianity. As for ancestor worship, it is gradually giving way to agnosticism.

ancient beliefs

Beliefs in good or evil spirits were common throughout China. Happy and unlucky days were also recognized. It was believed that the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon occur because the dragon wants to swallow these luminaries, and the rainbow is the result of the meeting of the impure vapors of the earth with sunlight.

Protective amulets were practiced. In order to ward off evil spirits, blossoming twigs of the peach tree were hung over beds and doorways. Children and adults "locked the soul" with locks hanging on chains or cords tied around the neck. They believed that old bronze mirrors had magical powers: they could drive away evil spirits and even heal from insanity.

In order to protect themselves from illness, injury, fire or robbers, they wore figurines made of pumpkins, tiger fangs or rhinoceros teeth. Protective spells and good wishes were written down on paper, fabric, plant leaves, and then burned. The ashes were poured into a decoction and given to drink by a sick person or a child.

Before starting any important business, they turned to fortune-tellers or predictors of the future. They guessed by plants (usually by yarrow) or with the help of sand, and most often in order to make sure that the plan was successful. Before setting off on a journey, they were guessing with the help of a coin thrown to the west.

There was a system of ideas associated with feng shui - "the art of achieving harmony between the living and the dead, so that they correspond to the local flows of cosmic breath." It goes back to the cult of ancestor worship and has had a huge impact on Chinese philosophy and daily life. Feng Shui was especially developed in the teachings of Zhu Xi and other philosophers of the Song Dynasty.

Science and education

It should be noted that traditional Chinese education was mainly bookish, since the need to develop those forms of knowledge that prevailed in the Western system of education was considered secondary. The Chinese system developed in response to specific requirements and was largely determined by pressing needs.

Astronomy, or rather astrology, was studied in order to draw up calendars and determine the timing of agricultural work. The daily ration depended on the harvested crop. Usually these were portions of rice, fruits and various types of meat necessary for existence.

There are two periods of the highest flowering in philosophy: the first begins with Lao Tzu and Confucius in the 6th century BC. e. and ends with the "burning of books" by the first ruler of the Qin kingdom - Shihuang-di - in 213 BC. e.; the second begins with Zhou Zi (1017-1073) and ends with Zhu Xi (1130-1200).

Imperial Library in 190 BC. e. contained 2705 books on philosophy by 137 authors. There is no doubt that such zeal for the study of orthodox teaching was determined by the written instructions of state institutions - that is why scientific knowledge did not develop.

Note that during the reign of the Manchus, who completed more than four thousand years of Chinese history, we know of only a few truly educated people who became famous for their labors. The famous "Description of the Twenty-four Dynasties" is considered one of the rarest phenomena of antiquity.

Knowledge in the field of geography, mathematics, chemistry, botany and geology was limited to purely practical needs. In all these areas of knowledge, a huge store of information has been accumulated, demonstrating the amazing property of the Chinese - the ability to observe the outside world, and then accumulate and use this experience. Therefore, one cannot agree with some Western scientists who speak disparagingly of Chinese scientists.

No less striking for a European are the achievements of Chinese medicine. Although Chinese doctors, based on careful observation of the human body, believed that the mind is located in the stomach, the soul is in the liver, and thoughts come from the heart, they accumulated vast experience and created a kind of knowledge system about vital points, the impact on which could reduce suffering, relieve symptoms of diseases. Zhenjiu therapy and the art of acupuncture have now entered the arsenal of modern medicine.

Language

Initially polysyllabic, later Chinese adopted a monosyllabic, isolating, non-inflectional form, in which grammatical relationships were conveyed by the location of words in a sentence. Tone stress, that is, the pronunciation of the same sound with different pitches, also performs a meaningful function. In numerous dialects that exist in different parts of the country, the oldest linguistic relics have been preserved. All these features led to the need for the most thorough articulation of norms and to the emergence of homonyms, since some words began to differ only in pronunciation. To distinguish between similar hieroglyphs, there are special keys, or so-called phonetics, which indicate the exact or approximate sound of the sign. And today the same phoneme "ma" can mean an exclamation, hemp, a horse or a curse. The specific meaning depends on the context and is conveyed by the pitch of the pronunciation.

Consequently, the language has been preserved in an archaic state, it does not have a system of inflection, paradigms, similar to European declensions or conjugations. The word order in a sentence is traditional: subject, verb, direct object, indirect object. The gender is formed with the help of gender particles, the number - with prefixes, the case - with the position of the word or the corresponding preposition.

Adjectives precede nouns, position determines the degree of comparison, so lack of punctuation leads to ambiguity. True, in recent works we already find punctuation marks. Learning begins with the memorization of numerous words and phrases that are not found in old literature or dictionaries. Japanese borrowings further litter the Chinese language.

Chinese characters do not need a lengthy description; those who cannot understand its meaning will enjoy it as an exquisite pattern, a kind of harmony of lines drawn on paper or fabric. Hieroglyphs are made up of word roots, keys, or phonetics. They are written in vertical columns, from right to left. In the 1st century A.D. e. a modern style of writing hieroglyphs was developed (kaishu - "exemplary writing"). The total number of characters is approximately 50,000; modern Chinese uses 4,000–7,000 characters.

Chinese achievements

Over the centuries of history, full of constant struggle for survival, the Chinese have come up with many useful devices. They built comfortable houses and beautiful palaces, in which they retained the features of the oldest primitive dwellings: flat walls, the entrance is always in front, the wooden roof rests on massive pillars. Outbuildings adjoined the main building on the sides.

For heating the premises in the cold season, they used gans, or “stone beds” (that is, a kind of platform built of bricks), inside which a fire was lit. A similar design was used in ancient times in caves.

Windows and shutters opened upwards (in ancient times, they were replaced by mats or curtains that hung in front of openings in the walls of cave dwellings).

The enclosed space of the courtyard was formed by four buildings located one opposite the other, one or more courtyards formed a common space. The economy was natural and fully provided for its needs in plant and animal food. They ate everything they could gather, catch or grow; they did not eat milk, they drank tea. And before they began to grow it, food was washed down with wine.

Clothing was made from skins and furs, sewn from cotton fabrics, and later from silk. Under the Manchus, they began to wear their clothes, characteristic of nomadic peoples. Loose trousers came into use, boots with wide noses resembling hooves, hair braided into braids.

Usually braids were braided from hair that grew on the back of the head, and they were shaved in front. Unlike the Egyptians, the Chinese did not wear wigs. They almost always dressed in long clothes and despised the Europeans for wearing too short dresses. Today, the Chinese also wear Western-style costumes.

The Chinese built huge canals, bridges, aqueducts and even built the largest wall in the world - the only man-made object that can be seen from space.

The Chinese turned out to have the longest and widest roads. In some places, the remains of ancient routes have been preserved, on the site of which roads or railways are now being built.

For the praise and fidelity of widows who did not marry a second time, the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire built special gates in their honor. Let us also note the pagodas created by them, arched bridges of incredible beauty. Each city was necessarily surrounded by a high and strong wall, which was supposed to protect residents from raids and attacks.

The Chinese are known for their constant improvement of a variety of tools and weapons, from writing implements and fans to plows, carts and ships. They invented “fiery spears” and “fiery elephants” that replaced bows and darts, spiked chariots, wall-beating guns and ballistae, matchlock guns, guns with barrels 4 meters long placed on a tripod, iron helmets with holes for ears and shoulders.

The Chinese are also known for their greatest literary monuments, as well as for their fine porcelain. From the point of view of Europeans, Chinese musical compositions are not particularly elegant, since Chinese music is based on a completely different melodic range. A very unique painting. Sculpture is diverse and expressive in its own way, especially works of small forms.

Werner alludes to Japan, which in 1931 captured Manchuria and created the puppet state of Manchukuo, and in 1937 launched a war to seize all of China.

Myths of ancient China

Each nation creates a unique mythology, in which, like in a mirror, its way of thinking is reflected. Ancient beliefs and legends, the philosophical teachings of Buddhism and Taoism, folk tales and legendary events are intertwined in Chinese myths, because the ancient Chinese assumed that mythical events actually took place many, many centuries ago.

In this section, we will meet with the mythical characters of Chinese history. Some of them are already familiar to us: the snake woman Nuwa, the emperors Fuxi and Huangdi. However, if until now mythology has interested us as a reflection of possible historical events, now we will try to look at it from a different point of view. After all, with the help of myths, you can see how the Chinese are similar to other peoples and what makes them absolutely unique. Let's start from the very beginning - from the creation of the world.

Every nation has a myth about the creation of the world. Such myths are often attempts by an inquisitive mind to imagine what was before everything appeared. But there is another point of view on the myths about the creation of the world. According to the works of the orientalist and writer Mircea Eliade, myths about the creation of the world were used in the rituals of the New Year celebration. Man, says Eliade, is afraid of time, behind him are the mistakes of the past, in front of him is an unclear and dangerous future. To get rid of the fear of time, a person created a New Year's ritual in which the old world was destroyed, and then recreated again with the help of special magical formulas. Thus, a person was freed from the sins and mistakes of the past and could not be afraid of the dangers that await him in the future, because each subsequent year is completely similar to the previous one, which means that he will live like the previous ones.

According to Chinese beliefs, the world was created from the initial chaos of water, which in Chinese is called huntun. This water chaos was filled with terrible monsters, one of whose appearance caused horror: these monsters had fused legs, teeth and fingers. Interestingly, according to the Chinese, some of their mythical ancestors looked similar.

The collection of sayings of philosophers from Huainan (Huainanzi) tells about those times when there was still neither heaven nor earth, and only formless images wandered in pitch darkness. In those distant times, two deities emerged from chaos.

Another myth tells that the first event of the creation of the world was the separation of the sky from the earth (in Chinese - kaipi). Written in the 3rd century the philosopher Xuzheng treatise "Chronological Records of the Three and Five Rulers" ("San Wu Lizi") tells that heaven and earth were in chaos, like the contents of a chicken egg. From this chicken egg, the first man Pangu was born: “Suddenly, heaven and earth separated from each other: yang, light and pure, became the sky, yin, dark and impure, became the earth. The sky began to rise every day by one zhang, and the earth per day became thicker by one zhang, and Pangu grew by one zhang per day. Eighteen thousand years passed, and the sky rose high, high, and the earth became dense and thick. And Pangu himself became tall, tall.” As it grew in the watery chaos, the sky moved further and further away from the earth. Each act of Pangu gave rise to natural phenomena: with his breath, wind and rain were born, with his exhalation - thunder and lightning, he opened his eyes - day came, closed - night came. After Pangu's death, his elbows, knees, and head became five sacred mountain peaks, and his body hair became modern humans.

This version of the myth became the most popular in China, which was reflected in traditional Chinese medicine, physiognomy, and even in the theory of Chinese portraiture - artists sought to portray real people and mythical characters in such a way that they were more or less similar to the mythological first man Pangu.

The Taoist legend contained in the Notes on the First Immortals tells a different story about Pangu: “When earth and sky were not yet separated, Pangu, the first to call himself a heavenly king, wandered among the chaos. When heaven and earth separated, Pangu began to live in a palace that stood on the Mountain of the Jasper Capital (Yujingshan), where he ate heavenly dew and drank spring water. A few years later, in a mountain gorge, from the blood collected there, a girl of unprecedented beauty named Taiyuan Yunyu (the first jasper maiden) appeared. She became the wife of Pangu, and their first-born son Tianhuang (Heavenly Emperor) and daughter Jiuguangxuannuy (Pure Maiden of Nine Rays) and many other children were born.

Comparing these texts, we see how myths have changed and been rethought over time. The fact is that any myth, unlike a historical fact or an official document, allows for several interpretations and interpretations, so it can be understood by different people in different ways.

The next myth tells about the already familiar half-woman half-snake Nyuwe. She did not create the Universe, but created all things and was the mother of all people whom she fashioned from wood and clay. Seeing that the creatures she created die without leaving offspring, and the earth is quickly emptying, she taught people about sex and created special mating rituals for them. As we have already mentioned, the Chinese portrayed Nu Wa as a figure with the head and hands of a man and with the body of a snake. Her name means "snail-like woman". The ancient Chinese believed that certain mollusks, insects, and reptiles that could change their skin or shell (house) had the power of rejuvenation and even immortality. Therefore, Nuwa, having been reborn 70 times, transformed the Universe 70 times, and the forms that she took in her rebirths gave rise to all beings living on earth. It was believed that Nuwa's divine magical power was so great that even 10 deities were born from her entrails (intestines). But the main merit of Nyuwa is that she created humanity and divided people into higher and lower: those whom the goddess fashioned from yellow clay (yellow in China is the color of heavenly and earthly emperors) and their descendants subsequently formed the ruling elite of the empire; and those who emerged from the pieces of clay and mud scattered by Nuwa with a rope are peasants, slaves and other subordinates.

According to other myths, Nuwa saved the Earth from death during a catastrophe, when heavenly fire and a flood could destroy all life. The goddess collected multi-colored stones, melted them and closed up the heavenly holes through which water and fire poured onto the earth. Then she chopped off the legs of a giant tortoise and with these legs, like pillars, she strengthened the firmament. Nevertheless, the firmament squinted a little, the earth went to the right, and the sky to the left. Therefore, the rivers in the Celestial Empire flow to the southeast. Nuwa's husband is considered to be her brother Fuxi (it is he who is identified with one of the first emperors). They are often depicted with intertwined snake tails facing each other or turned away. Nuwa's sign, which she holds in her hands, is a compass. Temples were built in her honor, where in the second month of spring plentiful sacrifices were made and holidays were held in her part, as the goddess of love and marriages. In late China, images of Nuwa and Fuxi were also carved on tombstones to protect graves.

Historians suggest that in ancient times Pangu and Nuwa were the deities of various tribes that later merged into the Han nation, and therefore their images are so different from each other. Thus, it is known that the cult of Nuwa was widespread in Sichuan and the southeastern outskirts of the Chinese empire, and the cult of Pangu was spread in the south. In history, it often happens that two images similar in their functions merge into marriage or closely related (mother - son, father - daughter, brother - sister) pairs of deities, but this did not happen in the case of Pangu and Nyuwa, most likely because they were too different from each other.

The created world for the Chinese was not a list of natural objects located at different distances from each other, but was inhabited by numerous spirits. In every mountain, in every stream and in every forest, good or evil spirits lived, with which legendary events took place. The Chinese believed that such events really happened in ancient times, and therefore historians recorded these legends in the chronicles along with real historical events. But in neighboring settlements, the same legend could be told in different ways, and the writers, having heard it from different people, entered different legends into their records. In addition, historians often reworked ancient myths, trying to present them from the right angle. So legends were woven into historical events, and incidents that took place in a distant mythical time became modern for the great dynasties of China.

There were a great many spirits worshiped by the Chinese. Among them were many ancestral spirits, that is, the spirits of people who once lived on earth and helped their relatives and fellow villagers after their death. In principle, any person after death could become a deity, enter the local pantheon and receive honors and sacrifices due to spirits. To do this, he had to have certain magical abilities and spiritual qualities. The Chinese were convinced that after death, all the evil that was in a person goes away when the body decays, and the cleansed bones serve as a receptacle for the strength of the deceased. So, when the meat on the bones decayed, the dead turned into spirits. People believed that they often met them wandering along the roads or in places they loved in life, and they looked the same as before when they were alive. Such spirits could come to fellow villagers and ask, and often even demand, that they make sacrifices to them. If the inhabitants of this area refused to make sacrifices, the spirits could cause a lot of trouble to the living: send a flood or drought, ruin crops, overtake clouds with heavy hail, snow or rain, deprive livestock and local women of fertility, cause an earthquake. When people made the necessary sacrifices, the spirits had to treat the living favorably and stop harming people.

Often people arranged for the spirits to be tested, asking them to perform some magical tasks of various levels of "complexity" - to ensure the fertility of livestock and crops, victory in the war, a successful marriage of children. If after the sacrifices to the spirits the desired events did not occur, the spirits were called impostors and no more sacrifices were made to them.

The ancient Chinese worshiped many gods, whose cults have survived to this day. Until now, the most revered goddess of China is the goddess of mercy Guanyin, also called Guanshiyin or Guanzizai. The Chinese proverb "Amitofo in every place, Guanyin in every home" testifies to the huge popularity of Guanyin among the people. Representatives of all religious movements of the country revere her, and the Buddhists of China consider her the embodiment of Avalokiteshvara. According to the Buddhist pictorial canon, she is depicted as a bodhisattva in a female form, which, in general, contradicts the religious tenets of Buddhism, which assert that bodhisattvas are asexual. Buddhists believe that the divine essence of a bodhisattva can manifest itself in the form of any creature or even an object. Its purpose is to help living beings comprehend the universal law (Dharma), which means that there is no reason to depict bodhisattvas in a female form. Buddhists believe that the main purpose of the Bodhisattva Guanshiyin is to teach all people about their true nature and how they can be realized in the world around them in order to follow the path of enlightenment. But the popularity of this goddess was so great that the Buddhists went to a direct violation of their own canon.

The Buddhist name Guanyin - Avalokiteshvara - comes from the Indian (Pali) verb "look down, explore, inspect" and means "Mistress of the world, who looks at the world with pity and compassion." The Chinese name of the goddess is close to this: "guan" means "to consider", "shi" - "world", "yin" - "sounds". Thus, her name means "contemplating the sounds of the world." The Tibetan name of the goddess Spryanraz-Gzigs - "Mistress contemplating with her eyes" - also draws attention to the visual, visual aspect of the goddess.

Traditional Chinese silk wedding dress

According to the Buddhist treatise Manikabum, Avalokiteshvara is a man, not a woman. He was born in the pure sacred land of Padmavati created by the Buddha, which was ruled by an ideal ruler named Tsangpokhog. This ruler had everything one could wish for, but he did not have a son, and he passionately desired to have an heir. For this, he made many offerings to the Shrine of the Three Jewels, but his desire was not fulfilled, although for each offering he ordered lotus flowers to be collected. One day, his servant told his master that he had found a giant lotus on the lake, the petals of which were like the wingspan of a kite. the flower was about to bloom. The ruler considered this a good omen and assumed that the deities supported him in his desire to have a son. Zangpohog gathered his ministers, associates and servants and went with them to the lake. There they saw the blossoming of a wonderful lotus. And something unusual happened: among its petals sat a boy of about sixteen, dressed in white clothes. The sages examined the boy and found on his body the main physical signs of the Buddha. When it got dark, it turned out that a glow emanated from him. After a while, the boy said, "I feel sorry for all sentient beings who are immersed in suffering!" the king and his subjects brought gifts to the boy, fell to the ground before him and invited him to live in the palace. the king gave him the name "Lotus-Born", or "Lotus Essence", because of his amazing birth. Buddha Amitabha, who appeared in a dream, informed the king that this boy is a manifestation of the virtues of all Buddhas and the essence of the hearts of all Buddhas, and he also said that the heavenly name of the boy is Avalokitesvara and his mission is to help all living beings in their troubles and sufferings no matter how innumerable they might be.

According to an ancient legend, the daughter of the king of one of the Chinese states named Miaoshan was so righteous in her earthly life that she received the nickname “Da Ci da bei ju ku ju nan na mo ling gan Guan shi yin pusa” (merciful, saving from torment and disaster , the refuge of the resorting, the miraculous lord of the world of bodhisattvas). It is believed that Miaoshan was one of the first incarnations of Kuan-yin on earth.

The appearances of Guanshiyin were numerous in China, but it appeared to people especially often in the 10th century, during the reign of the Five Dynasties. During this period, she appeared either in the form of a bodhisattva, or in the form of a Buddhist or Taoist monk, but never in the form of a woman. But in earlier times, she assumed her original female form. This is how she was depicted in early paintings. This is how it was depicted, for example, by Wudaozi, the famous artist of the Tang Emperor Xuanzong (713–756).

In China, it is believed that Guanyin has a miraculous power that allows you to get rid of bonds and fetters, as well as from execution. According to legend, one has only to pronounce the name Guanyin, as the shackles and bonds themselves fall off, swords and other instruments of execution break, and this happens every time, regardless of whether the condemned is a criminal or an innocent person. She also frees from suffering from weapons, fire and fire, demons and water. And, of course, women who wish to give birth to a child pray to Guanyin, and the child they can give birth to at the appointed time will be provided with the blessings of good deities, virtues and wisdom. The female qualities of Guanshiyin are manifested in her qualities of the “great sadness”, the giver of children, the savior; as well as in the guise of a warrior actively fighting evil. In this case, she is often depicted with the deity Erlanshen.

The functions of the deity, as well as its appearance, could change over time. An example is the goddess Sivanma, the mistress of the West, the keeper of the source and fruits of immortality. In more ancient myths, she acts as a formidable mistress of the land of the Dead, located in the West, and the mistress of heavenly punishments and diseases, primarily the plague, as well as natural disasters that she sends to people. The artists depicted her as a woman with long disheveled hair, a leopard's tail and tiger claws, sitting on a tripod in a cave. Three blue (or green) three-legged sacred birds brought her food. At a later time, Xiwangmu turns into a heavenly beauty living in the far West, in the Kunlun mountains in a jade palace on the shores of Jasper Lake, near which a peach tree grows with fruits that give immortality. She is always accompanied by a tiger. The goddess here is the patroness of the "immortal" Taoist saints. Her palace and the nearby garden with a peach tree and the source of immortality are surrounded by a golden rampart guarded by magical creatures and monsters.

The Chinese often mythologized real people. One of them is Guanyu, the commander of the Shu kingdom of the Three Kingdoms era. Subsequently, he became one of the main characters of the medieval novel "Three Kingdoms", in which he is presented as an ideal of nobility. Historians of Chinese literature even call him the Eastern Robin Hood. According to legend, he and two of his friends (Zhangfei and Lubei) swore to stand up for each other after the straw sandal maker Lubei broke up a fight between Guanyu and the butcher Zhangfei in a peach orchard. When fate lifted Lubei high and he founded the kingdom of Shu, he made Guanyu his supreme commander. However, the relationship between the real Guanyu and Lubei was not so idyllic. Around 200, the first fought in the army of Caotsao, and Lubei was on the side of his main enemy (Yuanshao). Nineteen years later, the real Guanyu, along with his son and squire, was captured by Sunquan and executed. After the execution, Sun Quan sent Guanyu's head to Emperor Caocao, who buried it with honors. Shortly after the burial of the head, legends appeared that said that after the murder of an unscrupulous judge, Guanyu managed to pass unrecognized by the guards, as his face changed color in a fantastic way. Since the 17th century Guanyu began to be revered in Korea. According to local legends, Guanyu allegedly defended the country from the Japanese invasion. Later it began to be revered in Japan.

From the time of the Sui Dynasty, Guanyu was revered not so much as a real person, but as a god of war, and in 1594 he was officially deified under the name of Guangdi. Since then, thousands of temples have been dedicated to him in China. In addition to military functions, Guangdi-Guanyu also performed judicial functions, for example, a sword was kept in his temples, with which criminals were executed. And besides, it was believed that the spirit of the deceased would not dare to take revenge on the executioner if he performed cleansing rites in the temple of Guandi.

Guandi is depicted accompanied by a squire and a son. His face is red, and he is dressed in a green vestment. Guandi holds in his hands the historical treatise Zuozhuan, supposedly memorized by him. Due to this, it is believed that Guandi patronizes not only warriors and executioners, but also writers. It is possible that the image of the warrior-writer was greatly influenced by the Tibetan god Geser (Gesar), who was both a deity and a historical figure - the commander of the Ling region. Later, the image of Geser was perceived by the Mongols and Buryats, for whom he became the main epic hero.

As in any ancient culture, the mythological representations of the Chinese are closely intertwined with the real and the fantastic. It is impossible to say what proportion of the real is in the myths about the creation and existence of the world. It is impossible to say what is the proportion of the fantastic in the descriptions of real rulers (if, of course, they are real). Most likely, what is told in many Chinese myths is an allegorical embodiment of power, courage, wealth, malice and destruction, etc.

Of course, in a book so small in volume, it is impossible to tell in any detail about the mythology of China. But even what we have managed to talk about allows us to assert that Chinese civilization is unique in its attitude to mythology, to the relationship between myth and real history. Therefore, in the history of China, one can often see that the Chinese create a certain myth from real history and live in it, firmly believing that this is reality. Perhaps one can say that the Chinese live in myths and create myths about life. This myth-making of history and the historicity of myths is, in our opinion, the main difference between the Chinese and other peoples of the world.