Literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. Literature of the second half of the 19th century

In the minds of people - readers and critics - of the 19th century, literature was endowed with an important role in public life. Reading was not entertainment, not a form of leisure, but a way of knowing reality. For the writer, creativity became an act of spiritual and civic service to society, he believed in the effective power of the artistic word, in the ability to elevate the human soul with its help, educate the mind and influence the socio-political situation.

From this faith was born the pathos of the struggle for one or another idea of ​​the transformation of the country, one way or another for the development of Russian life and literature. The 19th century was the heyday of Russian critical thought. The printed speeches of the best critics entered the golden fund of Russian culture and confirmed the high rank of criticism as a special kind of literature.

Slavophiles and Westernizers

In the 1840s, two social movements arose - Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky) and Westerners (V.G. Belinsky , A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogaryov, N. A. Nekrasov). Westerners saw in the reforms of Peter I the beginning of the historical development of Russia, and in following European traditions - its right path. They were skeptical about pre-Petrine Russia, considering the absence of a rich ancient history an advantage of Russia: a guarantee of the rapid assimilation of the progressive ideas of Western Europe.

During these years, among the Westerners, a radical movement was born, based on the teachings of the French utopian socialists - Saint-Simon and Fourier. At the apartment of M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky gathers a political circle, which includes young people who are passionate about socialist ideas. These meetings are also attended by writers, many of whom will later reconsider their attitude towards the Petrashevites - F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Maikov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and others.

Utopian socialists saw the main social evil in inequality, in a distorted social structure. The way out, in their opinion, was to re-educate the ruling class. The most radical part of this movement considered revolution as the only possible way of social transformation.

The Slavophile program of reforming Russia was based on the ideas of an independent path of development of the country, independent of the West, with a history no less rich than that of Europe. “Inherited from the Orthodox East and rooted in the deep layers of national life, a special, far from similar to the Western, integral type of thinking, the Slavophiles considered the indisputable advantage of Russian culture, requiring its development and improvement,” writes the modern scientist Yu.V. Lebedev. The Slavophils accepted the assimilation of the achievements of Western civilization only to the extent that this did not contradict the foundations of Russian culture. And if the West directs concern for human life to the improvement of external circumstances, then Orthodox Russia calls primarily for the moral perfection of man. European civilization, according to the Slavophiles, suffers from a spiritual disease of unbelief, individualism, deification of man and disappointment in spiritual values.

The divergence in views on the fate of Russia between Westerners and Slavophiles was also expressed in those different assessments that were given by representatives of both philosophical currents to the work of N.V. Gogol. Westerners saw in this writer the founder of the socio-critical trend in Russian literature, while Slavophiles emphasized a special element of the artistic worldview of the author of Dead Souls - epic fullness and high prophetic pathos. However, both of them recognized Gogol's fruitful influence on the development of Russian literature as indisputable.

"Natural School"

In the 1840s, a galaxy of word artists grew up, creatively developing the achievements of an older contemporary. The group of writers who rallied around Belinsky was called the "natural school". The main object of the image in their work was the "unprivileged" estates (janitors, artisans, coachmen, beggars, peasants, etc.). The writers sought not only to give the word "humiliated and offended", to reflect their way of life and customs, but also to show the whole vast Russia from a social point of view. At this time, the genre of “physiological essay” became popular, in which various social strata of Russian society are described with scientific rigor, thoroughness and factual accuracy (the best essays were written by N.A. Nekrasov, V.I. Dal, I.I. Panaev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. S. Turgenev, G. I. Uspensky, F. M. Reshetnikov and others).

Revolutionary Democrats

By the beginning of the 1860s, the confrontation between Westernizers and Slavophiles had almost exhausted itself: by this time, the ideologist of Westernism V. G. Belinsky and the Slavophiles A.S. Khomyakov and P.V. Kireevsky. However, there was still no unity in the views of the Russian intelligentsia on the main issues of Russian life. In the context of a changing historical situation (rapid development of cities, industry, improvement of the education system), new forces come to literature - raznochintsy, people from different social strata (clergy, merchants, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry, bureaucracy and the impoverished nobility), who received education and broke away from the former its environment. In criticism and literature, the revolutionary democratic ideas laid down by Belinsky are being developed. Representatives of this trend put acute socio-political issues at the center of creativity.

The main tribune of the revolutionary-democratic wing of Russian criticism was the journals Sovremennik, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Russkoye Slovo. The philosophical foundations of a critical approach to works of art were laid in the master's thesis by N.G. Chernyshevsky Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality. The revolutionary democrats considered literature from the point of view of political and social significance, they treated the literary text as a reproduction of life, and on the basis of the analysis of the artistic image they passed a harsh sentence on reality. This method of analysis is a young talented critic N.A. Dobrolyubov called "real criticism."

"Aesthetic Criticism" and "Organic Criticism"

Didacticism in the perception of artistic creativity was not accepted by representatives of “aesthetic criticism” (V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, A.V. Druzhinin), who proclaimed the inherent value of art, its independence from social problems and utilitarian tasks.

To overcome the limitations of "pure art", solving exclusively aesthetic problems, and social determinism (the subordination of creativity to political ideas, public interests), "organic criticism" sought. According to its principles developed by A.A. Grigoriev, and then N.N. Strakhov, true art is born, not “made”, it is the fruit not only of the mind, but also of the soul of the artist, his “thought of the heart”, all aspects of human existence are reflected in it.

Soilers and nihilists

These ideas were close to the socio-philosophical movement, which was called "pochvennichestvo". Its representatives (A.A. Grigoriev, P.P. Strakhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.Ya. Danilevsky), developing the views of the Slavophiles, warned against the danger of being carried away by social ideas in isolation from reality, traditions, people, and history. Thinkers urged to understand Russian life, to comprehend the ideal embedded in the people's consciousness in order to derive the principles of the country's organic development. On the pages of the magazines "Vremya", and then "Epoch", the "soil" criticized the self-confident rationalism of revolutionary opponents, and the viability of philosophy and art was determined by the connection with folk life, Russian culture and history.

Soil scientists saw one of the main dangers in contemporary reality in nihilism (from Latin nihil - nothing). This phenomenon became widespread among young raznochintsy in the 1860s and was expressed in the denial of established norms of behavior, art, religion, historical traditions, cultural values, recognized authorities and the dominant worldview. Moral categories were replaced by the concepts of "benefit" and "pleasure".

The complex of spiritual, moral and socio-social problems associated with nihilism is reflected in the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons" (1861), which caused a heated discussion in the press. The protagonist of Turgenev's novel, Bazarov, who denies love, compassion, art and harmony, was enthusiastically received by D.I. Pisarev, the leading critic of the revolutionary-democratic journal Russkoye Slovo and the main ideologist of nihilism. In the proclamation of the “godless freedom” of man, in the destructive passion of the new phenomenon, many thinkers saw a serious danger for Russia. In the literature of that time, a special genre of the “anti-nihilistic novel” was developing (I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.F. Pisemsky, N.S. Leskov). An irreconcilable position in relation to the nihilist revolutionaries was occupied by the conservative journal Russky Vestnik, published by M.N. Katkov.

Development of the novel genre

In general, the literary process of the second half of the 19th century was marked by the development of the genre of the novel in all its variety of forms: the epic novel (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy), the political novel (“What is to be done?” by N.G. Chernyshevsky), the social a novel (“Lord Golovlyovs” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), a psychological novel (“Crime and Punishment” and other works by F.M. Dostoevsky). The novel became the central epic genre of the era, the most relevant to the most important task that the time set before the artist: to explore the complex interactions of man and the surrounding life.

Poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century

After the golden age, having lost its dominant role as the ruler of thoughts and feelings, poetry continued to develop powerfully and pave the way for new ups and downs and discoveries. In the 1850s, poetry experienced a short but bright period of prosperity. The lyrics of "pure art" (A.A. Fet, Ya.P. Polonsky, A.N. Maikov) are gaining recognition and fame.

Attention to folk life, history, folklore, characteristic of literature in general, was also reflected in poetry. The main, key moments of Russian history received poetic reflection in the work of A.N. Maykova, A.K. Tolstoy, L.A. May. Folk legends, epics, songs determine the stylistic searches of these authors. Another wing of Russian poetry of the 1950s and 1960s (the work of the populists M.L. Mikhailov, D.D. Minaev, and V.S. Kurochkin) was called "civilian" and was associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The undisputed authority for the poets of this trend was N.A. Nekrasov.

In the last third of the 19th century, the work of peasant poets I.Z. Surikova, L.N. Trefoleva, S.D. Drozhzhin, who continued the traditions of Koltsov and Nekrasov.

The poetry of the 1880s is characterized, on the one hand, by the development and enrichment of romantic traditions, and, on the other hand, by the enormous influence of Russian prose, the novels of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, with their deep and subtle psychological analysis of human character.

Dramaturgy of the 2nd half of the 19th century

The second half of the 19th century was the era of the formation of original national drama. Widespread use of folklore, attention to merchant and peasant life, folk language, interest in national history, social and moral issues, expansion and complication of the traditional genre range, a complex combination of romanticism and realism - such is the general nature of the works of Russian playwrights of the second half of the 19th century - A. N. Ostrovsky, A.K. Tolstoy, L.V. Sukhovo-Kobylin.

The variety of artistic forms and styles of drama in the 2nd half of the 19th century largely predetermined the emergence at the end of the century of such innovative phenomena as the dramaturgy of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov.

Many Russian writers of the 19th century felt that Russia was placed before an abyss and was flying into the abyss.

ON THE. Berdyaev

Since the middle of the 19th century, Russian literature has become not only the number one art, but also the ruler of political ideas. In the absence of political freedoms, public opinion is formed by writers, and social themes predominate in the works. Sociality and publicity- distinctive features of the literature of the second half of the 19th century. It was in the middle of the century that two painful Russian questions were posed: "Who is guilty?" (title of a novel by Alexander Ivanovich Herzen, 1847) and "What to do?" (title of the novel by Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky, 1863).

Russian literature refers to the analysis of social phenomena, so the action of most works is modern, that is, it takes place at the time when the work is being created. The life of the characters is depicted in the context of a broader social picture. Simply put, the heroes "fit" into the era, their characters and behavior are motivated by the peculiarities of the socio-historical atmosphere. That is why the leading literary direction and method the second half of the 19th century becomes critical realism, and leading genres- romance and drama. At the same time, in contrast to the first half of the century, prose prevailed in Russian literature, and poetry faded into the background.

The severity of social problems was also associated with the fact that in Russian society in the 1840s-1860s. there was a polarization of opinions regarding the future of Russia, which was expressed in the emergence of Slavophilism and Westernism.

Slavophiles (the most famous among them are Alexei Khomyakov, Ivan Kireevsky, Yuri Samarin, Konstantin and Ivan Aksakov) believed that Russia had its own, special path of development, destined for it by Orthodoxy. They resolutely opposed the Western model of political development in order to avoid the dehumanization of man and society.

The Slavophiles demanded the abolition of serfdom, wished for general enlightenment and the liberation of the Russian people from state power. In particular, Konstantin Aksakov argued that the Russians are a non-state people who are alien to the constitutional principle (see the work of K.S. Aksakov "On the internal state of Russia", 1855).

They saw the ideal in pre-Petrine Russia, where Orthodoxy and sobornost (the term was introduced by A. Khomyakov as a designation of unity in the Orthodox faith) were the fundamental principle of people's existence. The tribune of the Slavophiles was the literary magazine Moskvityanin.

Westerners (Pyotr Chaadaev, Alexander Herzen, Nikolai Ogaryov, Ivan Turgenev, Vissarion Belinsky, Nikolai Dobrolyubov, Vasily Botkin, Timofey Granovsky, and the anarchist theorist Mikhail Bakunin adjoined them) were sure that Russia should follow the same path in its development, like the countries of Western Europe. Westernism was not a single direction and was divided into liberal and revolutionary-democratic currents. Like the Slavophiles, the Westerners advocated the immediate abolition of serfdom, considering this as the main condition for the Europeanization of Russia, they demanded freedom of the press and the development of industry. In the field of literature, realism was supported, the founder of which was considered N.V. Gogol. The tribune of the Westerners was the journals Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski during the period of their editing by N.A. Nekrasov.

Slavophiles and Westernizers were not enemies, they only looked differently at the future of Russia. According to N.A. Berdyaev, the first saw a mother in Russia, the second - a child. For clarity, we offer a table where the positions of the Slavophiles and Westerners are compared.

They tried to overcome the polarity of opinions of Slavophiles and Westerners soil workers . This movement originated in the 1860s. in the circle of the intelligentsia, close to the magazine "Time" / "Epokha". The ideologists of pochvenism were Mikhail Dostoevsky, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Apollon Grigoriev, Nikolai Strakhov. The Pochvenniki rejected both the autocratic serf system and Western bourgeois democracy. Accepting Western civilization, the Soil scientists accused the countries of the West of lack of spirituality. Dostoevsky believed that representatives of the "enlightened society" should merge with the "people's soil", which would allow the tops and bottoms of Russian society to mutually enrich each other. In the Russian character, the Pochvenniks emphasized the religious and moral principle. They were negative about materialism and the idea of ​​revolution. Progress, in their opinion, is the union of the educated classes with the people. The soil people saw the personification of the ideal of the Russian spirit in A.S. Pushkin. Many ideas of Westerners were considered utopian.

Since the middle of the 19th century, the question of the nature and purpose of fiction has become a subject of controversy. In Russian criticism, there are three views on this issue.

Alexander Vasilievich Druzhinin

Representatives "aesthetic criticism" (Alexander Druzhinin, Pavel Annenkov, Vasily Botkin) put forward the theory of "pure art", the essence of which is that literature should only address eternal topics and not depend on political goals, on social conditions.

Apollon Alexandrovich Grigoriev

Apollon Grigoriev formulated the theory "organic criticism" , advocating the creation of works that would cover life in its entirety, integrity. At the same time, the emphasis in the literature is proposed to be done on moral values.

Nikolai Alexandrovich Dobrolyubov

Principles "real criticism" were proclaimed by Nikolai Chernyshevsky and Nikolai Dobrolyubov. They viewed literature as a force capable of transforming the world and contributing to knowledge. Literature, in their opinion, should promote the dissemination of progressive political ideas, pose and solve primarily social problems.

Poetry also developed along different, diametrically opposed paths. The pathos of citizenship united the poets of the "Nekrasov school": Nikolai Nekrasov, Nikolai Ogarev, Ivan Nikitin, Mikhail Mikhailov, Ivan Golts-Miller, Alexei Pleshcheev. Supporters of "pure art": Afanasy Fet, Apollo Maykov, Lev Mei, Yakov Polonsky, Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy - wrote poems mainly about love and nature.

Socio-political and literary-aesthetic disputes significantly influenced the development of the national journalism. Literary magazines played a huge role in shaping public opinion.

Cover of the Sovremennik magazine, 1847

One of the main processes in Russian literature since the 1840s has been the development of the social novel. The first original Russian novel in prose is considered novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"(1840). It combined the main genre aspects of the novel of that time: social, historical, psychological, philosophical, moral. The novel A Hero of Our Time, which grew out of the novel genre of the 1830s, gave impetus to the development of prose. In the 1840s, a socio-political novel by A.I. Herzen "Who is to blame?"(1846) and romance-education "Ordinary Story" (1846) I.A. Goncharova.

In the late 1840s, Russian prose was enriched with innovative stories by I.S. Turgenev, and the 1850s, marked by the beginning of the reforms of Alexander II, were marked by three main literary phenomena: novels and short stories by I.S. Turgenev, novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"(it came out in 1859, although the writer worked on it for a decade) and drama A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm"(1859).

The three pinnacles of prose in Russian literature of the 1850s-1860s are Goncharov's novel Oblomov, Ostrovsky's drama Thunderstorm, and Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons"(1862). Each of these works in its own way reflects the historical time and life of Russia.

The novel "Oblomov" shows the fate of the local gentleman who ended up in St. Petersburg, depicts a multilateral conflict that arose because of the intransigence of the former village way of life and the modern urban one. In the drama "Thunderstorm", which is also defined as a tragedy, the conflict between the old and the new unfolds in the Volga city of Kalinov in a merchant-philistine environment. At the center of the conflict is a patriarchal merchant family, split by the tragic love of the young merchant Katerina. The novel "Fathers and Sons" describes the local nobility and a young scientist, commoner Bazarov.

The post-reform 1860s were the heyday of the work of two luminaries of Russian prose - F.I. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. In 1866 Dostoevsky writes the most famous of his five novels - "Crime and Punishment". The time described by Dostoevsky in the novel shows the first economic and moral consequences of social reforms in Russia, when Russian life “overflows” and its spiritual values ​​are threatened. The plot of the novel is formed around the terrible "ideological" murder of an old usurer by a raznochintsy student Raskolnikov. By genre, the novel "Crime and Punishment" combines the features of a socio-psychological, moral-philosophical and religious novel. The second most important prose work of the post-reform decade is the epic novel L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"(1863-1869). In contrast to Dostoevsky's sharply modern novel, the genre of the epic "War and Peace" is a historical, moral and philosophical novel. Tolstoy chooses the period of the Napoleonic Wars (1805-1813) for the plot of his work. In the center of the novel is Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Battle of Borodino. Turning to this heroic time, Tolstoy is looking for a source of moral strength and spirit of the Russian people, which could serve as a support in the construction of a new Russia.

The literature of the 1860s is being replaced by two trends. On the one hand, as a result of disappointment in state reforms, a critical mood in society is growing. In literature, this has found expression in satire. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, his fairy tales "The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals", "The Wild Landowner"(both - 1869) and others (1880s), as well as in the novel "Gentlemen Golovlyovs"(1875). On the other hand, in some plays by A.N. Ostrovsky sound optimistic motives. At the end of the 1860s Ostrovsky working on a comedy Forest"(1870), in which he makes an encouraging social forecast by artistic means. The scene of the comedy is a Russian remote province, estates surrounded by forests. The social environment of the play is the local nobility and two merchants, father and son, whose image should complete the picture of social relations in Russia at that time. The genre of comedy was chosen by Ostrovsky, according to him, because laughter has that moral healing power that the country recovering from reforms needs so much. The play combines three types of comedy, reflecting the complex Russian reality. The first is a satirical comedy, the revealing laughter of which is directed against the noble landlords, who are selfishly closed to a new life. It is opposed by a comedy with a tall hero (similar in psychological type to Chatsky) - a nobleman by birth and a tragic artist by fate Gurmyzhsky-Neschastvetsev. And the picture is complemented by a folk comedy about the love of the poor noblewoman Aksyusha and the young merchant Peter Vosmibratov. The comedy "Forest" is filled with cheerfulness and faith in the future. Imbued with a sense of joyful life and another play by Ostrovsky, rooted in mythology - a spring tale "Snow Maiden"(1873). In this fairy tale-mystery there is an allegory of the victory of light, the triumph of spring. The death of the Snow Maiden is sacrificial in nature, she prefers the cold to the warmth of life and the heat of love:

But what about me: bliss or death?

What a delight! What feelings of languor!

Oh Mother Spring, thank you for the joy,

For the sweet gift of love!

Second half of the 19th century - a new stage in the development of world literature. International literary ties are significantly strengthened and strengthened, but at the same time, the originality of national literatures is also deepening.

A distinctive feature of the literary process is the development of realism. That deep study of man and society in their constant relationship, which was begun by Stendhal, Balzac, and in Russian literature by Pushkin and Gogol, was continued in the work of a whole galaxy of remarkable representatives of world literature: Turgenev, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Flaubert, Dickens, Maupassant and many other writers.

Realism strives for a truthful and comprehensive reproduction of the diverse phenomena of life, for a wide coverage of reality with all its inherent contradictions.

The artistic discoveries of realism were manifested not only in the reliability of the depiction of everyday life, but also in the depiction of diverse human characters. In art, a new concept of the world and man arises.

There is a certain dependence of man on external circumstances; upbringing, living conditions, social status. An unspiritual prosaic society can have a destructive effect on a person, push him to abandon past ideals, or reconcile with the surrounding reality, or even lead to death (physical or moral). However, while objectively depicting the impact of social conditions on the destinies, morals and spiritual world of people, realistic literature at the same time reflected the growing resistance of the individual. In the best representatives of realistic literature, the positive hero is endowed with moral stamina, showing the ability to withstand adverse circumstances. Russian writers, in particular, sought to show their hero (and heroine!) as an active person, aware of the full responsibility not only for himself, but also for others, and even for all of humanity.

It is the life activity of the hero that often predetermines the main conflict in the development of the plot, giving him the features of dramatic tension.

The strength of realism lies in the formulation of the most important socio-philosophical and psychological problems, which predetermines the universal significance of the masterpieces of realistic art. That is why it is difficult to clearly outline the line separating realism from romanticism.

Despite the constant literary controversy, in practice, romantic tendencies are clearly felt in the work of many outstanding realist writers. It's not about changing directions (standard phrase from romanticism to realism not always confirmed by facts), but about the peculiar coexistence of realism and romanticism, their interpenetration, which ultimately enriches art. This applies even to the work of such seemingly consistent realists as Stendhal, Balzac, Dickens, Turgenev and others. material from the site

It is often said that the main sign of realism is the desire for lifelikeness. However, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of verisimilitude and artistic truth. These concepts are not identical. Realism is characterized by an extraordinary wealth of artistic forms, styles, and techniques. It is no coincidence that many writers, while remaining realists, widely use in their work a variety of ways of artistic expression, referring to myth, symbolism, allegory, and the grotesque. You will see this when you read the works of writers and playwrights such as Stendhal, Balzac, Dostoevsky or Chekhov.

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Aksakov Ivan Sergeevich (1823-1886)- Poet and essayist. One of the leaders of Russian Slavophiles.

Aksakov Konstantin Sergeevich (1817-1860) Poet, literary critic, linguist, historian. Inspirer and ideologist of Slavophilism.

Aksakov Sergei Timofeevich (1791-1859) is a writer and public figure, literary and theater critic. Wrote a book about fishing and hunting. Father of writers Konstantin and Ivan Aksakov. The most famous work: the fairy tale "The Scarlet Flower".

Annensky Innokenty Fedorovich (1855-1909)- poet, playwright, literary critic, linguist, translator. Author of plays: "King Ixion", "Laodamia", "Melanippa the Philosopher", "Famira Kefared".

Baratynsky Evgeny Abramovich (1800-1844)- Poet and translator. Author of poems: "Eda", "Feasts", "Ball", "Concubine" ("Gypsy").

Batyushkov Konstantin Nikolaevich (1787-1855)- a poet. Also the author of a number of well-known prose articles: "On the character of Lomonosov", "Evening at Kantemir" and others.

Belinsky Vissarion Grigorievich (1811-1848)- Literary critic. He headed the critical department in the publication "Domestic Notes". Author of numerous critical articles. He had a great influence on Russian literature.

Bestuzhev-Marlinsky Alexander Alexandrovich (1797-1837) Byronist writer and literary critic. Published under the pseudonym Marlinsky. Published the almanac "Polar Star". He was one of the Decembrists. Author of prose: "Test", "Terrible fortune-telling", "Frigate Hope" and others.

Vyazemsky Petr Andreevich (1792-1878) Poet, memoirist, historian, literary critic. One of the founders and the first head of the Russian Historical Society. Close friend of Pushkin.

Venevetinov Dmitry Vladimirovich (1805-1827)- poet, prose writer, philosopher, translator, literary critic Author of 50 poems. He was also known as an artist and musician. Organizer of the secret philosophical association "Society of Philosophy".

Herzen Alexander Ivanovich (1812-1870) writer, philosopher, teacher. The most famous works: the novel “Who is to blame?”, the stories “Doctor Krupov”, “The Magpie-Thief”, “Damaged”.

Glinka Sergei Nikolaevich (1776-1847) Writer, memoirist, historian. The ideological inspirer of conservative nationalism. Author of the following works: "Selim and Roxana", "Virtue of Women" and others.

Glinka Fedor Nikolaevich (1876-1880)- Poet and writer. Member of the Decembrist Society. The most famous works: the poems "Karelia" and "The Mysterious Drop".

Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich (1809-1852)- Writer, playwright, poet, literary critic. Classic of Russian literature. Author of Dead Souls, the cycle of stories Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, the stories The Overcoat and Viy, the plays The Inspector General and The Marriage, and many other works.

Goncharov Ivan Alexandrovich (1812-1891)- writer, literary critic Author of the novels: "Oblomov", "Cliff", "Ordinary History".

Griboyedov Alexander Sergeevich (1795-1829) Poet, playwright and composer. He was a diplomat, died in the service in Persia. The most famous work is the poem "Woe from Wit", which served as the source of many catchphrases.

Grigorovich Dmitry Vasilyevich (1822-1900)- writer.

Davydov Denis Vasilyevich (1784-1839)- Poet, memoirist Hero of the Patriotic War of 1812. Author of numerous poems and military memoirs.

Dal Vladimir Ivanovich (1801-1872)- Writer and ethnographer. Being a military doctor, he collected folklore along the way. The most famous literary work is the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. Dahl tinkered with the dictionary for over 50 years.

Delvig Anton Antonovich (1798-1831)- Poet, publisher

Dobrolyubov Nikolai Alexandrovich (1836-1861)- Literary critic and poet. Published under pseudonyms -bov and N. Laibov. Author of numerous critical and philosophical articles.

Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich (1821-1881)- writer and philosopher Recognized classic of Russian literature. Author of works: "The Brothers Karamazov", "Idiot", "Crime and Punishment", "Teenager" and many others.

Zhemchuzhnikov Alexander Mikhailovich (1826-1896)

Zhemchuzhnikov Alexey Mikhailovich (1821-1908)- Poet and satirist. Together with his brothers and writer Tolstoy A.K. created the image of Kozma Prutkov. Author of the comedy "Strange Night" and the collection of poems "Songs of Old Age".

Zhemchuzhnikov Vladimir Mikhailovich (1830-1884)- a poet. Together with his brothers and writer Tolstoy A.K. created the image of Kozma Prutkov.

Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852)- poet, literary critic, translator, founder of Russian romanticism.

Zagoskin Mikhail Nikolaevich (1789-1852)- Writer and playwright Author of the first Russian historical novels. Author of the works "Prankster", "Yuri Miloslavsky, or Russians in 1612", "Kulma Petrovich Miroshev" and others.

Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766-1826) historian, writer and poet. Author of the monumental work "History of the Russian State" in 12 volumes. His pen belongs to the story: "Poor Lisa", "Eugene and Julia" and many others.

Kireevsky Ivan Vasilyevich (1806-1856)- religious philosopher, literary critic, Slavophile.

Krylov Ivan Andreevich (1769-1844)- Poet and fabulist. Author of 236 fables, many expressions of which have become winged. He published magazines: "Mail of Spirits", "Spectator", "Mercury".

Kuchelbecker Wilhelm Karlovich (1797-1846)- a poet. He was one of the Decembrists. Close friend of Pushkin. Author of works: "The Argives", "The Death of Byron", "The Eternal Jew".

Lazhechnikov Ivan Ivanovich (1792-1869)- writer, one of the founders of the Russian historical novel. Author of the novels "Ice House" and "Basurman".

Lermontov Mikhail Yurievich (1814-1841)- poet, writer, playwright, artist. Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: the novel "A Hero of Our Time", the story "Prisoner of the Caucasus", the poems "Mtsyri" and "Masquerade".

Leskov Nikolai Semenovich (1831-1895)- writer. The most famous works: "Lefty", "Cathedrals", "On knives", "Righteous".

Nekrasov Nikolai Alekseevich (1821-1878)- Poet and writer. Classic of Russian literature. Head of the Sovremennik magazine, editor of the Domestic Notes magazine. The most famous works are: “Who should live well in Russia”, “Russian women”, “Frost, Red nose”.

Ogarev Nikolai Platonovich (1813-1877)- a poet. Author of poems, poems, critical articles.

Odoevsky Alexander Ivanovich (1802-1839)- Poet and writer. He was one of the Decembrists. The author of the poem "Vasilko", the poems "Zosima" and "The Elder-Prophet".

Odoevsky Vladimirovich Fedorovich (1804-1869)- Writer, thinker, one of the creators of musicology. He wrote fantastic and utopian works. Author of the novel "Year 4338", numerous stories.

Ostrovsky Alexander Nikolaevich (1823-1886)- playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Author of plays: "Thunderstorm", "Dowry", "Balzaminov's Marriage" and many others.

Panaev Ivan Ivanovich (1812-1862) Writer, literary critic, journalist. Author of works: "Mama's Boy", "Meeting at the Station", "Lions of the Province" and others.

Pisarev Dmitry Ivanovich (1840-1868)- Literary critic of the sixties, translator. Many of Pisarev's articles were dismantled into aphorisms.

Pushkin Alexander Sergeevich (1799-1837)- Poet, writer, playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Author: the poems "Poltava" and "Eugene Onegin", the story "The Captain's Daughter", the collection of stories "Belkin's Tale" and numerous poems. He founded the literary magazine Sovremennik.

Raevsky Vladimir Fedoseevich (1795-1872)- a poet. Member of the Patriotic War of 1812. He was one of the Decembrists.

Ryleev Kondraty Fedorovich (1795-1826) - poet. He was one of the Decembrists. Author of the historical poetic cycle "Duma". He published the literary almanac "Polar Star".

Saltykov-Shchedrin Mikhail Efgrafovich (1826-1889)- writer, journalist Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "The Wise Gudgeon", "Poshekhonskaya Antiquity". He was the editor of the journal "Domestic Notes".

Samarin Yuriy Fedorovich (1819-1876) publicist and philosopher.

Sukhovo-Kobylin Alexander Vasilyevich (1817-1903) playwright, philosopher, translator. Author of plays: "Krechinsky's Wedding", "Deed", "Death of Tarelkin".

Tolstoy Alexey Konstantinovich (1817-1875)- Writer, poet, playwright Author of the poems: "The Sinner", "The Alchemist", the plays "Fantasy", "Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich", the stories "Ghoul" and "Wolf Foster". Together with the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers, he created the image of Kozma Prutkov.

Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich (1828-1910)- writer, thinker, educator. Classic of Russian literature. Served in the artillery. Participated in the defense of Sevastopol. The most famous works: "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Resurrection". In 1901 he was excommunicated from the church.

Turgenev Ivan Sergeevich (1818-1883)- Writer, poet, playwright Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: "Mumu", "Asya", "Noble Nest", "Fathers and Sons".

Tyutchev Fedor Ivanovich (1803-1873)- a poet. Classic of Russian literature.

Fet Afanasy Afanasyevich (1820-1892)- lyric poet, memoirist, translator. Classic of Russian literature. Author of numerous romantic poems. He translated Juvenal, Goethe, Catullus.

Khomyakov Alexey Stepanovich (1804-1860) Poet, philosopher, theologian, artist.

Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich (1828-1889) Writer, philosopher, literary critic. Author of the novels What Is to Be Done? and "Prologue", as well as the stories "Alferyev", "Small stories".

Chekhov Anton Pavlovich (1860-1904)- writer, playwright Classic of Russian literature. Author of the plays "The Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya" and numerous stories. Conducted a population census on Sakhalin Island.