Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

In the early 1960s, the need forthe possibility of introducing local self-government, about whichrum was declared by the liberal public: the government could not, on its own, raise theprovincial economy. 1st of January 1864 was accepted law on local government, establishedfor the management of economic affairs: construction maintenance and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals prostrate, almshouses, etc.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were gu-Bernese and county land meetings, performtelny - provincial and district land administrations. For the election of deputies - vowels- the county zemstvo assembly convened 3 electoral congresses: large landowners, urbanowners and peasants. District zemstvosassembly elected the vowels of the provincial zemstvoth meeting. Zemstvo assemblies were dominated noble landowners.

With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the provinces began to change: a “third element” arose, ascalled zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists,tists. Zemstvos slowly but surely raisedlocal economy, improved the life of the village,education and health care. Soon the earthstva ceased to be purely economic organizationsnizations; associated with them is the appearance of the zemstvo liberalism, who dreamed of all-Russian elections oforderly authority.

In 1870 was held city ​​government reform. Elections to the Duma were held by three election congresses: small, medium and largeny taxpayers. (Workers don't pay taxestili did not participate in the elections.) city ​​head and council elected by the Duma. Bodies of the cityself-governments successfully engaged in organizingher urban life, urban development, but in generalthey participated weakly in the movement.

In 1864, at the urging of the public, carried out judicial reform. Court in Russiaclassless, vowel, competitive, independentsim from the administration. central linkthe new judicial system became district Court. The prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, the interests ofdefendant defended defendant. Jury givers, 12 people, after listening to the court debate, rendered a verdict ("guilty", "not guilty", "vi-new, but deserving of indulgence"). Based onvaniya verdict, the court delivered a sentence. Such mouth-court courtship provided the greatest guaranteesfrom judicial errors.

Handling petty criminal and civil cases was engaged world judge, elected Zemstvo so- raniy or city council for 3 years. Ruler- the government could not, by its power, remove from a justice of the peace or judges of the district court.

Judicial reform was one of the mostsubsequent transformations of the 60-70s, but still it remained unfinished: it was notreformed the Senate, to parse small con-conflicts in the peasant environment remained classvolost court, which had the right to award to those forest punishments (until 1904).

A number of important military reforms held by D. A. Mi-Lutin, who was appointed Minister of War in 1861. The army was re-equipped according to modern requirements.novations. At the final stage, it shouldthere will be a transition, from recruitment to universalIndian duty. The conservative part of the generals for a number of years blocked this on-making; a turning point in the course of affairs was introduced by the Franco-Prussian the war of 1870-1871: contemporaries were struck by the speed of the mobilization of the Prussian army. On January 1, 1874, a law was passed abolishing the river rutchinu and distributing military obligations for men of all classes who have reached the age of 20 and fit for health. Service life benefitsbecome an additional incentive toeducation. The reform accelerated the breakdown of the class-th building; the abolition of recruitment increased the popularity Alexander II among the peasantry.

Reforms 60-70s, eliminating a number of experiences kov, creating modern self-government bodiesand ships, contributed to the development of the country, growthcivic consciousness of the population. These were only the first steps: the upper levels of power were not touched by the reforms.

Transformations in the Russian Empire in the 60-70s of the century before last are called liberal reforms. The pivotal event of the long-term process was the Great Peasant Reform of 1861. It determined the course of further bourgeois reconstructions and reorganizations taken by the government of Alexander II. It was necessary to reorganize the political superstructure, rebuild the court, the army, and much more.

Thus, Alexander II's understanding of the urgent need for a peasant reform led him, in the course of implementing the plan, to carry out a complex of transformations in all spheres of Russian public life. Unwittingly, the emperor himself took steps towards a bourgeois monarchy, which was based on the transition to an industrial society, a market economy and parliamentarism. The assassination of the king in March 1881 turned the country's movement in a different direction.

Reform of administration of zemstvos and cities

The nobility after the abolition of serfdom was concerned about the strengthening of its role in the political life of the country. The government of the reformers sensitively caught the mood of the ruling class and developed the zemstvo, and a little later, the city reforms.

The reforms were carried out in accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district local institutions” of January 1, 1864 in 34 provinces of the European part of the empire and the “City Regulations” of June 16, 1870.

The main principles of the zemstvo and city reforms were:

1. Separation of local self-government from administrative power.
2. Election of governing bodies and all-class representation.
3. Independence in financial and economic matters.

Democratic judicial reform

The judiciary, of all liberal reforms, is considered the most consistent. Since 1861, work began on the "Basic provisions for the transformation of the judicial part of Russia." In 1864, the sovereign approved modern judicial charters that defined new principles of legal proceedings:

The emperor had the right to correct the decisions of all courts through administrative measures.

The overdue reform of the army

The experience of the Crimean War showed that Russia needed a massive army with the necessary reserves and a trained officer corps. The rearmament of the army and the reorganization of the military command and control system are urgently needed. The reform began to be prepared as early as 1861 and was implemented in 1874 with the following steps:

1. 15 military districts have been created.
2. Establishment of a network of military educational institutions.
3. New military regulations have been introduced.
4. Equipping the army with new models of weapons.
5. Cancellation of the recruiting system.
6. The introduction of universal conscription for the recruitment of the army.

As a result, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army increased significantly.

Education reform

The establishment of the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864 and the Charter of the Secondary School solved the following problems:

• accessibility of education for all classes;
• monopolies of the state and church in the field of education, permission for zemstvos, public associations and individuals to open educational institutions;
• gender equality, the opening of higher courses for women;
• expanding the autonomy of universities.

The reform affected all three educational levels and was significant for the development of the country.

Accompanying reforms

In addition to the landmark reforms, the following were carried out along the way:

The financial reform of 1860 - 1864, which consisted in the transformation of the banking system and the strengthening of the role of the Ministry of Finance.

The tax reform was manifested in the abolition of wine farming, the introduction of indirect taxes and the determination of the limits of zemstvo taxation.

The censorship reform abolished the preview of works, but introduced a system of sanctions after publication.

The reform of 1861 made the peasants free, solving the most important problem of Russian reality, but, at the same time, it retained many traces of the old system, which could become an obstacle to the economic development of the country. The change in the legal status of such a large group of the population could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia. Therefore, the emancipation of the peasants had to be supplemented by a number of other reforms. First of all, this affected local government, in which the government tried to involve the public. As a result of the implementation of the zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, elected self-government bodies were created. Having relatively broad powers in the field of economic development, education, health and culture, the zemstvos, at the same time, did not have any rights in political life. The state also sought to prevent the coordination of the activities of the zemstvos, fearing their possible self-organization into a social movement. And yet, with all the restrictions imposed on the work of zemstvos, they played a very significant role in the development of the Russian provinces. No less decisive changes occurred due to the judicial reform (1864). She, perhaps, most of all stood out from the traditional framework of the Russian political system. All estates, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive legal proceedings, the participation of jurors - all these principles decisively broke with the traditional foundations of the old judicial system. Therefore, despite a number of subsequent restrictive acts of the government, the judicial system became the first and, perhaps, the only institution in Russia completely independent of the state. In the direction of liberalizing public life, other steps taken by the state also developed: the softening of censorship rules (1865), the granting of autonomy to universities (1863) and even the military reform (1874), which resulted not only in the introduction of universal military service and reduction in service life, but attempts were made to humanize the army. Thus, the reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century brought great changes to the life of the country. They allowed Russia to get out of a protracted and deep crisis, significantly accelerated its development, both in socio-economic and political terms. At the same time, it was only the first step on a fairly long path leading to a new model of statehood in Russia. Although absolutism was clearly exhausting its possibilities and more and more often it had to make concessions to the public, it made these movements very reluctantly, as a rule, under pressure from below. Therefore, the success of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. did not receive due completion in the form of a constant movement towards the complete democratization of society. Being a conservative response to the challenge of the times, a reaction "from above", the reforms did not satisfy the public and caused more and more attempts to put pressure on the authorities in order to implement new liberal reforms. The refusal of the government to make these changes led to an increase in radicalism in the social movement, which, in turn, created the conditions for a new growth of the crisis. Contradictions not resolved by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s were superimposed by new ones generated by the post-reform reality and, thereby, increased the conflict in the Russian state. The revolution was avoided, but it was not possible to prevent it in the future.

Zemstvo reform of 1864 Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they used to say) economy. Honey. assistance in the village was practically non-existent. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the elementary rules of hygiene. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was exhausted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to guide households. affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for the organization of food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were district and provincial zemstvo councils. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, for the election of vowels of the county zemstvo assembly, created. three elect. congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by elected representatives from volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liber. landlords, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the Zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos have played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has developed, a “third element” has appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians have come to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. They were trusted by peasants, councils listened to their advice. Government officials have watched the rise of the "third element" with concern.

Urban reform of 1870 In 1870, following the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out to replace the former class dumas, created in accordance with the “Charter of Letters to Cities” of 1785, with all-class elective city institutions - city dumas and city councils.

The right to elect to the city duma was used by persons who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia consisted of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers who contributed another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all the other taxpayers. At the same time, each curia elected an equal number of councilors to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the big financial and commercial and industrial bourgeoisie in it.

City public self-government was in charge of the decision of households. issues: the improvement of the city, the development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, the maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the city duma was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs. However, for all its limitations, the urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban government during the Ec II. She, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform of 1864 The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform carried out on the basis of new judicial charters adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the formal equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court; the independence of judges; competition between the prosecution and the defense; the election of certain judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general.

The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by county zemstvo assemblies, and in the capitals - by city dumas. For judges, a high educational and property qualification was established - not lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 acres of land. At the same time, judges received fairly high salaries - from 2,200 to 9,000 rubles a year,

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers

The district court was appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. A juror could be a citizen of Russia between the ages of 25 and 70 with an impeccable personal record, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A rather significant property qualification was also established - possession of real estate in the amount of at least 2 thousand rubles. Lists of jurors approved. governor.

The Court of Appeal for the District Court was the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict handed down by the jury was not allowed.

The Judicial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons who had a rank higher than the titular adviser (that is, from the VIII class of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated with state. crimes and obeyed with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.

The reform established the publicity of trials, which began to be held openly, the public was admitted to them, newspapers printed reports on courts of public interest. The principle of competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy.

And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal vestiges (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and senior officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.

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§ 21-22. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s. 19th century

Local government reforms.

After cancellation serfdom a number of other changes were required.

One of the most important reforms of Alexander II was the creation of local governments - zemstvos.

By the beginning of the 60s. the former local administration showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital who led the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions brought economic life, healthcare, enlightenment to extreme frustration. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems.

At the same time, when establishing zemstvos, the government could not ignore the mood of the nobility, a significant part of which was dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom. “The nobility,” wrote K. D. Kavelin, “cannot come to terms with the idea that the government freed the peasants as it wanted, and not as the nobles wanted, that the nobility was not even decently listened to. The role of the first estate of the empire in a matter of such importance turned out to be pathetic and humiliating. Therefore, one of the reasons for the Zemstvo reforms there was a desire to compensate for the nobles - at least partially - the loss of their former power.

By creating local self-government bodies, the government also hoped that their activities would be able to distract the most active part of society “from political dreams”, and force them to engage in specific useful deeds.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which provided for the creation of new elected bodies of local government - zemstvos in uyezds and provinces (zemstvos were not created in volosts).

Owners of at least 200 acres of land or other real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises generating income of at least 6 thousand rubles, could be voters in the landowning curia. rubles in year. The small landowners, uniting, put forward only their representatives.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6 thousand rubles, as well as owners of real estate in the amount of 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3.6 thousand rubles (in large ones).

Elections for the peasant curia were multistage: at first, the village assemblies elected representatives to the volost assemblies. Electors were first elected at volost gatherings, who then nominated representatives to county self-government bodies. Representatives were elected at county zemstvo assemblies peasants to provincial governments.

Zemstvo bodies were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of representatives of all classes in the person of elected vowels (deputies). Vowels both in the county and in the provinces were elected for 3 years.

Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for 3 years. The leader of the nobility was the chairman of the zemstvo assembly.

The range of issues that the zemstvo institutions resolved was limited to local affairs: the construction of communication lines, the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of the actions of the zemstvos.

The material basis for the activities of the zemstvos was a special tax, which was imposed on real estate: land, houses, factories and trade establishments.

Zemstvos were not introduced in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where there was no noble land ownership or was insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, the Caucasus did not receive local governments, since the landowners there were not Russian.

Zemstvo reform had flaws. First of all, the principle of all estates was inconsistently maintained. Elections were actually built on a class basis. At the same time, distribution by curia gave significant advantages to the nobles. The range of issues addressed by the zemstvos was limited.

Nevertheless, the creation of zemstvo institutions was a success for the supporters of constitutional government. The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia was grouped around the Zemstvos. Over the years of their existence, the zemstvos have raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to the peasants on a scale that the state power was incapable of. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility prevailed in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses of the people.

In 1870, a city reform was carried out in the style of a zemstvo. It replaced the former class city dumas with all-class elective city institutions - city dumas and city councils.

The right to elect to the city duma was enjoyed by men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curia. The first curia consisted of a small group of the largest owners of houses, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers who contributed another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all the other taxpayers. At the same time, each curia elected an equal number of vowels, which ensured the predominance of large owners.

City public self-government was in charge of solving economic issues: the improvement of the city, the development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, the maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the city duma was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs.

For all its limitations, the city reform was a step forward in the matter of city self-government. It, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of the general population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform.

The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform, carried out on the basis of new judicial charters adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all estates before the law; publicity of the court; the independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; the election of certain judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general. The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city councils. Only a "local resident" of at least 25 years of age, who had an impeccable reputation, could become a justice of the peace. For judges, a high educational and property qualification was established: higher or secondary education and ownership of real estate are twice as high as in elections to zemstvos by the landowning curia. At the same time, they received rather high wages - from 2.2 to 9 thousand rubles a year.

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 with an impeccable reputation, who had lived in the area for at least two years and owned real estate in the amount of 2,000 rubles or more. Jury lists were approved by the governor.

Appeals against the District Court's decision were made to the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict handed down by the jury was not allowed. The Judicial Chamber also considered cases of malfeasance of officials. Such cases were equated with state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.

The reform established the publicity of the conduct of courts. They began to be held openly, the public was admitted to them, newspapers printed reports on courts of public interest. The competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy. Outstanding lawyers F.N. Plevako, Prince A.I. Urusov and others became famous in this field, laying the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-orators. Although the new judicial system still retained a number of vestiges of the past (special volost courts for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and senior officials), nevertheless it turned out to be the most advanced in the then world.

military reforms.

Liberal transformations in society, the desire of the government to overcome the backlog in the military field, as well as to reduce military spending, made it necessary to carry out fundamental reforms in the army.

They were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, who took up this position in November 1861. The reforms stretched over several years and covered all aspects of army life. Taking into account the experience of a number of European countries, D. A. Milyutin considered one of the main tasks of the reforms to reduce the army in peacetime, with the possibility of a significant increase in the war period by creating a trained reserve. In 1863-1864. military educational institutions were reformed. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. The children of the nobility studied mainly in these educational institutions. For those who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created. They welcomed representatives of all classes. In 1868, military progymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools. The programs of higher military educational institutions were revised and improved. In 1867, the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 - the Naval Academy.

The procedure for replenishing the army changed radically: instead of the recruitment sets that had existed since the time of Peter I, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes were subject to conscription from the age of 20 (later - from the age of 21). The total service life in the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years - active service, 9 years - in reserve. In the fleet - 10 years: 7 years - valid, 3 years - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the term of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from elementary schools) to 6 months (for those who had higher education).

The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were exempted from active military service. Those exempted from conscription were enlisted in the militias, collected only in time of war. Representatives of the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to conscription.

Corporal punishment was abolished in the army; improved nutrition; the network of soldiers' schools expanded.

The army and navy were being re-equipped: in 1867 rifled guns were introduced instead of smooth-bore guns, and the replacement of cast-iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; in 1868, rifles created by Russian inventors with the assistance of American Colonel X. Berdan (Berdanka) were adopted. The system of combat training has changed. A number of new charters, manuals, manuals were issued, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was needed in the war, significantly reducing the time for drill training.

As a result of military reforms, Russia received a mass army of a modern type. Drilling and cane discipline with cruel corporal punishment were largely expelled from it. Most of the soldiers were now taught not only military affairs, but also literacy, which significantly raised the authority of military service. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education.

The education system has undergone a significant restructuring that has affected all three of its levels: primary, higher and secondary.

In June 1864, the Regulations on Primary Public Schools were approved. From now on, such schools could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of various types of primary schools - state, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday. The term of study in such schools did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution of the secondary level. They were divided into classical and real. In the classics, a large place was given to the ancient languages ​​- Latin and ancient Greek. They prepared young people for university entrance. The term of study in classical gymnasiums was at first seven years, and since 1871 - eight years. Real gymnasiums were called upon to prepare "for occupations in various branches of industry and trade." Their training was seven years. The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed. They could continue their studies in technical higher educational institutions.

The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set.

The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums.

In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, which restored the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues.

Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates could not enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, Petersburg, Kazan, Kyiv. In the future, girls began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Implementation of reforms. The implementation of the reforms was very difficult. Even in the course of their development, Alexander II more than once showed a desire to make “corrections” in them in a conservative spirit, in order to thus protect the country from shocks. In practice, this was expressed in the fact that the reforms were developed by young liberal officials, and they were put into practice by old conservative officials.

Almost immediately after the promulgation of the peasant reform, its active participants were dismissed - Minister of the Interior S. S. Lanskoy and his closest assistant N. A. Milyutin. Conservative P. A. Valuev was appointed Minister of the Interior. He announced that his main task was "the strict and precise implementation of the provisions of February 19, but in a conciliatory spirit." The conciliatory spirit of Valuev was expressed in the fact that he began the persecution of those world mediators who too zealously defended, in his opinion, the interests of the peasants during the reform. He arrested the organizers of the congress of conciliators in Tver, at which it was stated that the congress of conciliators would be guided in their activities not by government orders, but by the views of society.

However, it was no longer possible to stop the course of the peasant reform, and the conservatives launched an attack on other reforms. The impetus for this was the attempt in 1866 by a member of the secret revolutionary organization D. Karakozov on Alexander II, which ended in failure. The conservatives accused the liberal Minister of Education A. V. Golovnin of corrupting the youth with the ideas of nihilism and forced his resignation.

Golovnin's departure was followed by the resignations of other senior officials. Representatives of conservative forces were appointed to their places. The post of Minister of Education was taken by D. A. Tolstoy, General Count P. A. Shuvalov was appointed chief of the gendarmes, and General F. F. Trepov was appointed head of the St. Petersburg police. Nevertheless, Alexander II retained some liberals in the government, so that reformist activity was not curtailed. Its main guide was Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, brother of N. A. Milyutin, leader of the peasant reform.

In 1871, D. A. Tolstoy submitted a report to Alexander II, in which he sharply criticized real gymnasiums. He argued that the spread of natural science and a materialistic worldview in them leads to an increase in nihilism among young people. Having received the approval of the emperor, Tolstoy carried out in the same year a reform of secondary school education, which amounted to the elimination of real gymnasiums and the introduction of a new type of classical gymnasiums, in which natural science was practically excluded and ancient languages ​​​​were introduced to an even greater extent. From now on, education in gymnasiums was built on the strictest discipline, unquestioning obedience, and encouragement of denunciation.

Instead of real gymnasiums, real schools were created, the term of study in which was reduced to 6 years. They were relieved of the task of preparing students for higher education and provided only narrow technical knowledge.

Not daring to change the university charter, Tolstoy nevertheless significantly increased the number of bodies supervising higher educational institutions.

In 1867, the conservatives succeeded in significantly limiting the rights of the zemstvos. On the one hand, the powers of the chairmen of zemstvo assemblies (leaders of the nobility) were expanded, and on the other hand, control over their activities by government bodies was strengthened. The publicity of zemstvo assemblies was limited, and the printing of zemstvo reports and reports was constrained.

Constitutional throwing. "Dictatorship of the Heart"

Despite all the restrictions, many of the innovations that appeared in Russia as a result of the reforms came into conflict with the principles of the autocratic system and required significant changes in the political system. The logical conclusion of the zemstvo reform should have been the expansion of representative institutions, both downwards - in the volosts, and upwards - to the national level.

The emperor was convinced that autocratic power was the most acceptable form of government for the multinational and vast Russian Empire. He repeatedly stated "that he opposes the establishment of a constitution, not because he values ​​his power, but because he is convinced that this would be a misfortune for Russia and would lead to its disintegration." Nevertheless, Alexander II was forced to make concessions to the supporters of constitutional government. The reason for this was the terror unleashed against senior officials, and the constant attempts to assassinate the emperor himself by members of secret revolutionary organizations.

After the second unsuccessful assassination attempt on Alexander in April 1879, the tsar by a special decree appointed temporary governor-generals in St. Petersburg, Kharkov and Odessa, who were granted emergency powers. In order to calm the agitated population and cool the heads of the revolutionaries, popular military leaders were appointed as governors general - I. V. Gurko, E. I. Totleben and M. T. Loris-Melikov.

However, in February 1880, a new assassination attempt on the emperor was made in the Winter Palace itself. A few days later, Alexander II established the Supreme Administrative Commission and appointed Kharkiv Governor-General M.T. Loris-Melikov, who received the powers of the de facto ruler of the country, as its head.

Mikhail Tarielovich Loris-Melikov (1825-1888) was born into an Armenian family. He was known as an outstanding general who became famous in the war with Turkey. For courage and personal courage, Loris-Melikov was granted the title of count. His merit was the victory over the plague that raged in the Astrakhan province. Appointed by the Kharkiv governor-general, Loris-Melikov began to restore order in the province by curbing the arbitrariness of local officials, which earned the sympathy of the population.

In his political views, Loris-Melikov was not a fan of constitutional government. He was afraid that the people's representatives gathered together would bring with them a mass of just complaints and reproaches, to which it would be very difficult for the government at the moment to give a satisfactory answer. Therefore, he considered it necessary to fully implement the plans of all reforms, and only then allow some participation of representatives of the population in the discussion of state affairs. Loris-Melikov saw his primary task in the fight against the anti-government movement, not stopping at "any strict measures to punish criminal acts."

Loris-Melikov began his activities in the new post with the restructuring of the police authorities. The III branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery was attached to the Ministry of the Interior. The Minister of the Interior became Chief of the Gendarmes. All security agencies were concentrated in one hand - the Ministry of the Interior. As a result, the fight against terrorists began to be conducted more successfully, the number of assassination attempts began to decline.

Realizing the role of newspapers and magazines, Loris-Melikov weakened censorship, contributed to the opening of previously banned and the emergence of new publications. He did not prevent criticism of the government, public discussion of policy issues, with the exception of only one problem - the introduction of the constitution. With respect to the press, Loris-Melikov did not apply prohibitions and punishments, preferring to conduct personal conversations with editors, during which he gave mild advice on topics desirable for the government for discussion in newspapers and magazines.

Listening to public opinion, Loris-Melikov began to replace some of the top officials. He insisted on the dismissal of the Minister of Public Education, Count D. A. Tolstoy, and by this step attracted sympathy in wide circles of the public.

The time when Loris-Melikov was at the head of the domestic policy of the state was called by his contemporaries "the dictatorship of the heart." The number of terrorist attacks has decreased, the situation in the country seemed to have become more calm.

On February 28, 1881, Loris-Melikov submitted a report to the tsar, in which he proposed to complete the “great work of state reforms” and attract social forces for this purpose in order to finally calm the country. He believed that in order to develop appropriate laws, it was necessary to create two temporary commissions from representatives of zemstvos and cities - administrative and economic and financial. The composition of the commissions was to be determined by the emperor himself. Loris-Melikov proposed to send the draft laws prepared in them for discussion to the General Commission, composed of elected representatives of the zemstvo and city self-government. After approval by the General Commission, the bills would go to the State Council, which would also be attended by 10-15 elected members who worked in the General Commission. This is the content of the project, which was called the "Constitution of Loris-Melikov."

This project had little resemblance to a real constitution, since the measures proposed in it could not significantly affect the political structure of the Russian Empire. But its implementation could be the beginning of creating the foundations of a constitutional monarchy.

On the morning of March 1, 1881, Alexander II approved the Loris-Melikov project and scheduled a meeting of the Council of Ministers for March 4 for its final approval. But a few hours later the emperor was killed by terrorists.

During the reign of Alexander II in Russia, liberal reforms were carried out that affected all aspects of public life. However, the emperor failed to complete the economic and political transformations.

? Questions and tasks

1. Why, after the abolition of serfdom, the state faced the need for other reforms?

2. What circumstances led to the creation of local government? Describe the Zemstvo reform. What do you see as its pros and cons?

3. What principles formed the basis of judicial reform? Why do you think the judicial reform turned out to be the most consistent?

4. What changes have taken place in the army? Why did recruitment no longer meet the needs of the state?

5. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of the education reform?

6. Give an assessment of the project of M. T. Loris-Melikov. Can this project be considered constitutional?

The documents

From the regulation on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. January 1, 1864

Art. 1. For the management of affairs relating to the local economic benefits and needs of each province and each district, provincial and district zemstvo institutions are formed ...

Art. 2. Cases subject to the conduct of zemstvo institutions ...

I. Management of property, capital and collections of zemstvos.
II. Arrangement and maintenance of buildings belonging to the Zemstvo, other structures and means of communication ...
III. Measures to ensure people's food.
IV. Management of zemstvo charitable institutions and other charity measures; ways to end begging; church building...
VI. Care for the development of local trade and industry.
VII. Participation, mainly in economic terms ... in the care of public education, public health and prisons.
VIII. Assistance in the prevention of livestock deaths, as well as in the protection of grain crops and other plants from extermination by locusts, ground squirrels and other harmful insects and animals ...

About the new court (from the memoirs of the popular singer P. I. Bogatyrev)

The fascination with justices of the peace has not subsided yet, quickly, without any formalities and overhead costs, publicly examining civil and criminal cases, acting equally in defense of the personal and property rights of both noble and common people, using arrest for arbitrariness and riot, even if it was perpetrated by a rich man in the street, who was previously insured against such punishment and got off with an unspoken monetary contribution. Too great was the charm of the magistrate's court among the Moscow petty people, the humble townspeople, burghers, artisans and domestic servants, for whom the magistrate's court after the police massacre was a revelation. In the early years, the chambers of justices of the peace were daily filled with, in addition to those participating in the case, outsiders ... The sessions of the district court with jurors also made the strongest impression on society. Before their introduction, many voices were heard warning against this form of court in Russia, on the grounds that our jurors, among whom even illiterate peasants were initially admitted, would not understand the duties assigned to them, would not be able to fulfill them, and, perhaps, they will be bribe-able judges. Such rumors further increased the public's interest in the first steps of the newly-minted jurors, and regardless of this, the first speeches of the public prosecutor - the prosecutor and, as defenders - members of the estate of sworn attorneys, seemed extremely curious. And from the very first hearings of the court, it became obvious that the fear for our jurors was completely futile, since they, being thoughtful and aware of moral responsibility and the importance of the new case, faithfully and correctly performed the task assigned to them and contributed to the administration of justice what Until now, our pre-reform criminal courts lacked a lively sense of justice, not constrained by formalities, knowledge of life in its most diverse manifestations and public understanding and assessment, which do not always agree with the written law of other crimes, as well as humanity. The verdicts of the jury were hotly discussed in society, causing, of course, different opinions and passionate disputes, but in general Moscow was pleased with the new court, and the townsfolk of all classes went to court hearings in civil, especially criminal cases and watched the course of the process with intense attention and the speeches of the parties.

By the 1860s Russia has changed radically. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom - there were many free peasants, impoverished landowners in the country, the number of cities grew and new cities were built. All this required new reforms and changes. A kind of government compensation to the nobility was the zemstvo reform of local self-government bodies, which allowed representatives of all classes to participate in these bodies, but the main role belonged to the nobility. In the cities, new local governments were also created - City Dumas and Councils. All these bodies resolved issues of agriculture and urban economy, as well as urgent problems of settlements. Another great reform was the judicial reform of the Russian Empire, which brought the Russian judicial system to a qualitatively new level. You will learn more about all this in this lesson.

As a result, AlexanderII carried out a reform of local governments - zemstvos. According to the idea of ​​the government, all strata of Russian society should have been involved in participation in local self-government bodies. However, in fact, the nobles played the main role, since they suffered the greatest losses in the course of the peasant reform, and the authorities wanted to partially compensate them for the losses. In addition, the government of Alexander II was sure that participation in the economic life of the regions would help divert the most radical forces of Russian society from destructive activities for the state.

On January 1, 1864, the Regulations on provincial and zemstvo institutions were introduced by imperial decree. Only men, who were elected by three curias, had the right to take part in the zemstvo bodies. The first curia is the landowners - the richest people, the second - the urban population, the third - free peasants who have received the right to representation in the zemstvo bodies. Money for zemstvo activities had to be collected with the help of a special tax, which was introduced on all real estate in counties for factories, plots, houses (Fig. 2), etc.

Rice. 2. Factory in Russia in the 19th century ()

Zemstvo bodies were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative bodies are zemstvo assemblies, which met once a year. They were attended by deputies - vowels chosen from three curiae. Administrative bodies met for a short period of time to solve the most important economic problems of the region. The rest of the time, the executive bodies of the zemstvos, the zemstvo councils, acted. They were much smaller in number of deputies, but the zemstvo councils were permanent bodies of local self-government that resolved the daily issues of the population.

Zemstvos dealt with a fairly wide range of issues. They built schools and hospitals (Fig. 3), provided them, created new communication routes, and solved issues of local trade (Fig. 4). The scope of zemstvos also included charity, insurance, veterinary business and much more. In general, it should be said that the zemstvos did a lot. Even the opponents of the reforms of Alexander II admitted that the old bureaucracy of local self-government could not solve as many issues as the new zemstvo bodies did.

Rice. 3. Rural school of the 19th century ()

Rice. 4. Rural trade in the XIX century. ()

In 1870, on the model of the zemstvo, the city reform of local self-government bodies was also carried out. According to it, the old city authorities were replaced by new all-estate councils and councils. Now residents of all social strata could be involved in the management of the city. This made the authorities afraid of the new city self-government bodies and tightly control them. Thus, the city head could be appointed only with the consent of the Minister of the Interior or the Governor. In addition, these two officials could veto any decision of the City Duma (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. City Duma of the XIX century. ()

Men at least 25 years old could take part in the bodies of city self-government, and they must pay taxes to the treasury. City councils resolved a number of issues related to the development of the city: entrepreneurial and commercial activities, landscaping, maintenance of the police and prisons.

The urban reform has become an important stage in the development of Russian cities as a whole.

In the conditions of post-reform Russia, a huge number of free people appeared, disoriented, not understanding how to live in the country. Before the government of Alexander IIthere was a serious problem of the courts. The old courts of the Russian Empire were fairly corrupt, the power in them belonged to representatives of the nobility or local administration. All this could lead to deep social upheavals.

In connection with the above circumstances, one of the most systemic and consistent reforms of Alexander IIwas judicial reform. According to the plan of this reform, two types of courts were created: general and world courts.

Magistrates' courts operated in cities and counties. They handled minor civil and criminal cases. Justices of the peace (Fig. 6) were elected by the officials of the City or Zemstvo Council. They were the sole arbitrators of justice in their area and did their best to resolve problems between the inhabitants of their settlement amicably.

Rice. 6. Magistrate ()

The general courts were divided into district courts and judicial chambers. They were located in provincial cities and solved a large number of issues. The district courts heard civil, criminal and political cases. An important distinguishing feature of district courts was the presence of jurors in them. These were people who were chosen by lot from among ordinary citizens. They issued a verdict: the accused is guilty or not. The judge only determined the measure of restraint in case of his guilt or released an innocent person to freedom.

In case of dissatisfaction with the verdict, the convict could appeal to the Trial Chamber. The Senate became the supreme instance of the Russian judicial system, where an appeal could be filed if there was a complaint against the actions of the Judicial Chamber. The Senate also carried out general management of the judicial system of the Russian Empire.

Among other things, other changes have taken place in the judicial system. For example, positions such as the prosecutor, who led the prosecution, and the lawyer, who defended the interests of the defendant, appeared. From now on, court sessions were held in an atmosphere of publicity: representatives of the press and inquisitive citizens were allowed into the courtroom.

All of the above made the Russian judicial system more flexible.

In general, we can say that the judicial system of Russia after the reform of Alexander II became the most efficient and most advanced in the world. City and zemstvo reforms of self-government bodies also allowed the country's public administration to reach a new, qualitative level.

Bibliography

1. Zayonchkovsky P.A. The abolition of serfdom in Russia. - M., 1964.
2. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: "Ventana-Count", 2013.
3. Lonskaya S.V. World justice in Russia. - Kaliningrad, 2000.
4. Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M .: "Drofa", 2012.
5. History of the state and law of Russia: textbook / ed. Yu.P.Titova. - M.: Prospekt, 1998.
6. After the reforms: government reaction // Troitsky N.A. Russia in the 19th century: a course of lectures. - M.: Higher school, 1997.

1. Russian Military Historical Society ().
2. History.ru ().
3. Grandars.ru ().
4. Studopedia.ru ().

Homework

1. Describe the Zemstvo reform of local governments. How did she go? What was the impact of this reform?
2. How was the city reform of local governments? What was the result of this reform?
3. How did the judicial system of the Russian Empire change after the judicial reform of 1864?