They have a long, centuries-old history, the reason for this is the amazing geography of indonesia or rather its favorable climate. The development of civilization in these parts began long before our era, people from all over the area moved to these places for a better life. Such close cohesion of various peoples contributed to the fact that Indonesian culture become so unique and unrepeatable.

Religion in Indonesia

Most of the country's population professes traditional Islam, which appeared here at the end of the 13th century. This does not mean that it is only Islam, the country is a secular state, laws that guarantee anyone complete freedom of religion.

Economy of Indonesia

Modern Indonesia considered to be an agro-industrial country. Over the past decades, the country's policy has slightly changed the course of its development, the current one is not only tourism and recreation, but also an increase in the growth of its own industry.

Science of Indonesia

For many years the country was a colonial republic, the first Europeans here were the Portuguese, then the Dutch, after them the French and the British. Of course, in those days the state was not going through the best period in its history, but thanks to this, it gained a lot. Many existing scientific institutions were formed by the Dutch Enlighteners.

Art of Indonesia

The multinational composition of the state contributed to the fact that the modern culture country is unique in its kind. Spiritual development was largely influenced by the impact of several religions at once, such as Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, paganism, etc. Art of Indonesia preserves the heritage of many peoples. Literature, historical architecture, music, arts and crafts, theater are just a small part of what a country with such a rich original culture can boast of.

Indonesian cuisine

Local cuisine combines the taste preferences of many peoples, so for some, local cuisine may seem a little specific. The main ingredients of the dishes are cereals, most often rice and seafood, which are seasoned with a large amount of various seasonings. Indonesian cuisine varied, an abundance of dishes, seasonings, sauces cannot but rejoice, it should be noted that pork is not served here, because. The vast majority of the population is Muslim.

Indonesian customs and traditions

In a country of more than 300 ethnic groups, almost weekly holidays are the norm for the locals. The state officially celebrates only 3 holidays, the rest are religious, and are held on the own initiative of the residents. Indonesian customs and traditions unique and diverse, the country of contrasts is ready to pleasantly surprise its guests throughout the rest.

Sports of Indonesia

Modern leaves much to be desired. In international competitions, a country rarely performs well. The main favorite sports are martial arts, football, chess, motorcycling, badminton.

Indonesia is a country located on many tropical islands. Each Indonesian island has its own unique culture, architecture, people and traditions. Indonesia has it all - jungles, rainforests, lakes, active volcanoes and, of course, paradise beaches. In Indonesia, you will meet friendly people, and you will also be able to see the sunrise over the most beautiful Buddhist temples.

Geography of Indonesia

Indonesia is located in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago, which includes more than 17.5 thousand islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, including Kalimantan, Sumatra, Java, and New Guinea (only 6 thousand of them are inhabited). Indonesia shares borders with Malaysia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea. Other nearby countries are Singapore, Philippines, Palau and Australia. The total area of ​​this country is 1,919,440 sq. km.

A significant part of the territory of the islands that make up Indonesia is occupied by mountains. The largest local peak is Mount Punchak Jaya on the island of New Guinea, which reaches a height of 4,884 meters.

The geographical position of Indonesia determines that this country has very strong seismic and volcanic activity. those. Indonesia often experiences earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. However, special services can already predict all these cataclysms. In general, there are now about 150 active volcanoes in Indonesia, including the "famous" Krakatau and Tambora.

On the island of Kalimantanu there are three largest rivers in Indonesia - Mahakam, Barito and Kapuas.

Capital

The capital of Indonesia is Jakarta, which is now home to more than 9.7 million people. Archaeologists claim that a human settlement on the site of modern Jakarta existed already in the 1st century AD. However, the city itself was officially founded in 1527.

Official language

The official language in Indonesia is Indonesian, which belongs to the Austronesian language family.

Religion

More than 88% of Indonesia's population is Muslim (mostly Sunni Muslim). About 8% of the population of this country identify themselves as Christians.

State structure of Indonesia

Under the current Constitution of 1945, Indonesia is a parliamentary republic. Its head is the President, elected for 5 years.

The parliament in Indonesia is bicameral - the People's Consultative Congress, consisting of the Council of People's Representatives (560 deputies) and the Council of Representatives of the Regions (132 deputies). The country's parliament has the right to impeach the president.

The main political parties in Indonesia are the Democratic Party, the Golkar Party, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, the Justice and Welfare Party, and the National Mandate Party.

Climate and weather in Indonesia

The climate in Indonesia is equatorial with elements of subequatorial. In general, Indonesia is very hot and humid. The average annual air temperature is +27.7C. The average annual rainfall is 1,755 mm. The rainy season in this country is from October to April. However, there are also rains in the so-called. "dry season".

Some travelers like to relax in Indonesia during the rainy season (October-April). At this time, it usually rains in Indonesia in the evening for no more than 2 hours. The rest of the time, Indonesia is very hospitable. During this season, as a rule, hotel prices in Indonesia are much lower than during the dry season.

In Sumatra and Java, the rainy season lasts from November to March (rain falls in the afternoon). The best time to travel to Java or Sumatra is May-September.

In Bali, the rainy season is from October to March. However, in Bali, there is a lot of sun and bright blue skies between the rain shower. Therefore, in Bali you can relax in the rainy season. The best months to visit Bali are from May to August.

Sulawesi Island, an amazing place for a beach holiday, has two opposite climatic zones. In the southwest of this island, the monsoon period lasts from October to March, and in the north - from June to July. On the coast of Sulawesi, the air temperature can reach + 34C, and in the middle of the island, on a hill - + 24C.

Average air temperature in Bali:

January - +26С
- February - +26C
- March - +27C
- April - +27C
- May - +28C
- June - +27C
- July - +27C
- August - +27С
- September - +27C
- October - +27C
- November - +27С
- December - +27C

Ocean in Indonesia

The shores of the Indonesian islands are washed by the warm waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Average sea temperature near Bali island:

January - +29С
- February - +29C
- March - +29С
- April - +28C
- May - +28C
- June - +28C
- July - +27C
- August - +27С
- September - +27C
- October - +27C
- November - +27С
- December - +27C

Rivers and lakes

Some of the Indonesian islands have many rivers. The largest rivers flow through the island of Kalimantan (these are the Mahakam, Barito and Kapuas rivers). On the island of Sumatra is the largest volcanic lake in the world - Lake Toba.

History of Indonesia

On the territory of Indonesia, the ancestors of modern people lived already during the Lower Paleolithic (Javanese ape-man and Flores man). Approximately 45 thousand years ago, Homo sapiens appeared on the territory of modern Indonesia. Moreover, Indonesia was inhabited by representatives of the Negroid and Mongoloid races.

The first states in Indonesia already existed in the 4th century AD. - Kutai and Taruma, and later - Srivijaya. All these states were greatly influenced by India and Buddhism.

In the 13th century, the Majapahit empire reached its peak. At the same time, Islam began to spread in Indonesia.

Europeans arrived in Indonesia at the beginning of the 16th century. They were Portuguese sailors. Then the Dutch began to claim Indonesia, who formed the Netherlands East India Company in 1602. At that time, several states existed on the territory of modern Indonesia, among which the Sultanate of Mataram should be distinguished. Gradually, these states became colonies of the Netherlands.

Indonesia became a British colony in 1811. However, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Great Britain returned Indonesia to the Netherlands.

In the first half of the 20th century, Indonesians formed several political parties (for example, the Communist Party of Indonesia and the National Party).

In the spring of 1942, Indonesia (Netherlands East Indies) was captured by Japanese troops. The Japanese occupation of Indonesia continued until August 1945. It was in August 1945 that the independence of Indonesia was proclaimed. However, the Netherlands did not want to part with their colony, and unleashed hostilities. The fighting ended only in 1950. Sukarno was elected president of the country.

In March 1968, the People's Consultative Congress elected Sukarto, who had previously commanded the ground forces, as president of Indonesia.

Since 2004, the President of Indonesia has been elected by direct universal suffrage.

culture

The modern culture of Indonesia is the result of the interaction of the traditions of different peoples who live in this country. In addition, Portuguese traders and Dutch colonists had a noticeable impact on Indonesian culture.

In everyday life, Indonesians are guided by the principles of mutual assistance (“gotong royong”) and exchange of opinion (“musyawarah”), which helps to come to an agreement (“mufakat”).

Indonesian art is under a very strong religious influence. The traditions of the famous dance dramas of Java and Bali date back to Hindu mythology (influence of the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata can be seen in them).

In Indonesia, we recommend that tourists definitely see the local festivals, which are held everywhere and almost every month. The largest of them are the Galungan festival in Bali, performances of the "Ramayana ballet" in Java, the Feast of Silence in Bali, the Vesak Buddhist festival in Borobudur, the Easter parade on Larantuka island.

Kitchen

The staple food in Indonesia is rice, but potatoes, corn, sago and cassava are common in the eastern part of the country. Naturally, a very large part in Indonesian cuisine is occupied by fish and various seafood (oysters, shrimps, lobsters, crabs, squids). In addition, Indonesian cuisine cannot be imagined without coconut (oil is made from it, and the pulp is added to many dishes).

As for meat, beef and poultry are popular in Indonesia. Pork is only found in Chinese restaurants or in areas where few Muslims live.

Traditional Indonesian dishes are nasi goring (fried rice), mie goring (fried noodles), and gado-gado (vegetables with eggs in peanut sauce).

Indonesia has a wide variety of exotic fruits (jackfruit, durian, papaya, pineapple and mango).

The traditional alcoholic drink in Indonesia is tuak wine, which is made from palm red sugar. However, most Indonesians drink black tea because Islam forbids alcohol.

Sights of Indonesia

Rest assured that travelers in Indonesia are not bored. Of course, relaxing on the beaches under the Indonesian sky is a great pleasure. But sometimes you want to visit interesting places. There are a lot of such interesting sights in Indonesia. The top ten Indonesian attractions, in our opinion, may include the following:

Cities and resorts

The largest Indonesian cities are Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Tangerang, Bekasi, Depok, Palembang, Semarang, Makassar, and, of course, Jakarta.

Due to its geographical position, Indonesia has excellent conditions for recreation. Tourists have long appreciated such islands in Indonesia as, for example, Bali and Lombok. However, some of the other Indonesian islands offer just as great a holiday opportunity. We advise you to pay attention to the islands of Papua, Lembongan, Sulawesi, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java.

Almost every hotel in Indonesia offers spa services. In general, many argue that the best spa treatments are done in Indonesia. Spa programs on the island of Bali are especially diverse.

Traditional Indonesian spa services include a milk bath ("Mandi susu"), which is considered the beauty bath of the princesses of Java, "Mandi luhur", "flower baths" (jasmine, gardenia, hibiscus, magnolia petals are added to warm water), which, as a rule, are the final stage of the spa session.

In addition, Indonesian spas include herbal wraps (used to remove impurities from the body and heal skin blemishes) as well as traditional massages.

Souvenirs/Shopping

Bamboo and coconut products (for example, baskets, rugs), wooden spoons, bowls, figurines, painted ceremonial masks, batik and ikat fabrics (as well as, for example, tablecloths made from these fabrics) are usually brought from Indonesia as souvenirs. , Wayang dolls, traditional Indonesian musical instruments ("gamelan", drums, bamboo flutes), tea.

Office Hours

State institutions:
Mon-Fri: 08:00-16:00

In Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries. two stages are clearly visible. The internal frontier in the development of culture of the XIII-XV centuries. was the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). If the first stage is characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise begins, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into a general Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.

Folklore.

During the period of the struggle against the Mongol conquerors and the Golden Horde yoke, turning to epics and legends of the Kiev cycle, in which battles with the enemies of Ancient Russia were described in bright colors and the feat of arms of the people was famous, gave the Russian people new strength. Ancient epics acquired a deep meaning, began to live in oh life. New legends (such as, for example, “The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh” - a city that went to the bottom of the lake along with its brave defenders, who did not surrender to the enemies, and became invisible to them), called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated Golden Horde yoke . A genre of poetic and historical songs is taking shape. Among them is the “Song of Shchelkan Dudentevich”, which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327.

Chronicle.

Thanks to economic growth, business records are becoming more and more necessary. From the 14th century the use of paper instead of expensive parchment begins. The growing need for records, the appearance of paper led to the acceleration of writing. To replace the “charter”, when square letters were written out with geometric accuracy andfemininity, a semi-ustav comes - a freer and fluent letter, and from the 15th century. shorthand appears, close to modern writing. Along with paper, in especially important cases, parchment continued to be used, various types of rough and household records were made, as before, on birch bark.

As already noted, chronicle writing in Novgorod was not interrupted even during the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. new centers of chronicle writing emerged. Since 1325, chronicle records began to be kept in Moscow as well. During the formation of a single state with its center in Moscow, the role of chronicle writing increased. When Ivan III went on a campaign against Novgorod, it was not by chance that he took with him the deacon Stepan the Bearded: to prove, on the basis of the chronicle, the necessity of annexing Novgorod to Moscow.

In 1408, an all-Russian annalistic code was compiled, the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which died in the Moscow fire of 1812, and the creation of the Moscow annalistic code is attributed to 1479. They are based on the idea of ​​all-Russian unity, the historical role of Moscow in the state unification of all Russian lands, the continuity of the traditions of Kiev and Vladimir.

Interest in world AI, the desire to determine one's place among the peoples of the world caused the appearance of chronographs - works on world AI. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by Pachomius Logofet.

Historical stories were a common literary genre of that time. They told about the activities of real historical persons, specific historical facts and events. The story often was, as it were, part of the annalistic text. Before the Kulikovo victory, the story “On the Battle of the Kalka”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (it told about the feat of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat), stories about Alexander Nevsky and others were widely known before the Kulikovo victory.

The brilliant victory of Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 is dedicated to a cycle of historical stories (for example, “The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev”). Zephanius Ryazanets created the famous pathetic poem "Zadonshchina", built on the model of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". But if in the "Word" the defeat of the Russians was described, then in the "Zadonshchina" - their victory.

During the period of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature flourished. Talented writers Pakhomiy Logofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church figures in Russia: Metropolitan Peter, who moved the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sershev Monastery, who supported the great Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde.

“Journey beyond three seas” (1466-1472) by the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. Afanasy Nikitin made his journey 30 years before the opening of the route to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.

Architecture.

Earlier than in other lands, stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov. Using previous traditions, Novgorodians and Pskovians built dozens of small temples. Among them are such significant monuments of architecture and painting of that time as the churches of Fyodor Stratilat on the Ruche (1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) in Novgorod, the Church of Vasily on Gorka (1410) in Pskov. The abundance of decorative decorations on the walls, general elegance, and festivity are characteristic of these buildings. The bright and original architecture of Novgorod and Pskov has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. Experts explain this stability of architectural and artistic tastes by the conservatism of the Novgorod boyars, who sought to maintain independence from Moscow. Hence the focus is mainly on local traditions.

The first stone buildings in the Moscow principality date back to the 14th-15th centuries. The temples that have come down to us in Zvenigorod - the Assumption Cathedral (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-S Ozhev Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Grand Duke of Moscow - to create a powerful, full of grandeur, dignity and strength of the Moscow Kremlin.

The first white-stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected under Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortifications were badly damaged. A century later, grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian masters, who then occupied a leading position in Europe, ended with the creation at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day.

The Kremlin territory of 27.5 hectares was protected by a red brick wall, the length of which reached 2.25 km, the thickness of the walls was 3.5-6.5 m, and their height was 5-19 m. century, 18 towers were erected out of the current 20. The towers had hipped roofs. The Kremlin occupied a place on a cape at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (now included in the collection) into the Moscow River. From the side of Red Square, a moat was built that connected both rivers. Thus, the Kremlin found itself, as it were, on an island. It was one of the largest fortresses in the world, built according to all the rules of the then fortification science. Under the shelter of powerful walls, the palaces of the Grand Duke and the Metropolitan, buildings of state institutions, and monasteries were erected.

The heart of the Kremlin is Cathedral Square, on which the main cathedrals overlook; its central structure is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower (finally completed under Boris Godunov, reaching a height of 81 m).

In 1475-1479. the main cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - the Assumption Cathedral was built. The temple was started to be built by Pskov craftsmen (1471). A small "coward" (earthquake) in Moscow destroyed the topmast of the building. The construction of the Assumption Cathedral was entrusted to the talented architect of the Italian Renaissance, Aristotle Fiorovanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. In the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Fiorovanti managed to organically combine the traditions and principles of Russian (primarily, Vladimir-Suzdal) architecture and advanced technical achievements of European architecture. The majestic five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. Here the tsars were crowned kings, Zemsky Sobors met, and the most important state decisions were announced.

In 1481-1489 vols. Pskov craftsmen erected the Cathedral of the Annunciation - the house church of the Moscow sovereigns. Not far from it, also on Cathedral Square, under the leadership of the Italian Aleviz the New, the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes was built - the Archangel Cathedral (1505-1509). If the plan of the building and its design are made in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, then the external decoration of the cathedral resembles the wall decorations of Venetian palaces. At the same time, the Faceted Chamber was built (1487-1491). From the "edges" that adorned the outer walls, it got its name. The Faceted Chamber was part of the royal palace, its throne room. The almost square hall, whose walls rest on a massive tetrahedral pillar erected in the center, occupies an area of ​​about 500 square meters. m and has a height of 9 m. Here foreign ambassadors were introduced to the king, receptions were held, important decisions were made.

Painting.

The merging of local art schools into the all-Russian one was also observed in painting. It was a long process, its traces were noted both in the 16th and in the 17th centuries.

In the XIV century. in Novgorod and Moscow, the wonderful artist Theophan the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked. The fresco paintings of Theophan the Greek in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street that have come down to us are distinguished by their extraordinary expressive power, expression, asceticism, and loftiness of the human spirit. Theophanes the Greek was able to create emotional tension, reaching tragedy, with strong long strokes of his brush, sharp “gaps”. Russian people came specially to observe the work of Theophan the Greek. The audience was amazed that the great master wrote his works without using icon-painting samples.

The highest rise of Russian icon art is associated with the work of Feofan the Greek's contemporary, the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information about the life of the outstanding master has been preserved.

Andrei Rublev lived at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. His work was inspired by the remarkable victory at the Kulikovo field, the economic upsurge of Muscovite Russia, and the growth of self-awareness of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, inner dignity and strength, ideas of unity and peace between people, humanity are reflected in the artist's works. A harmonious, soft combination of delicate, pure colors creates the impression of integrity and completeness of his images. The famous "Trinity" (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, embodies the main features and principles of Andrei Rublev's painting style. The perfect images of the “Trinity” symbolize the idea of ​​the unity of the world and humanity.

A. Rublev's brushes also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad that have come down to us.

RUSSIAN CULTURE XVI century.

The religious worldview still determined the spiritual life of society. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 also played an important role in this. It regulated art, approving the patterns that were to be followed. The work of Andrei Rublev was formally proclaimed as a model in painting. But what was meant was not the artistic merits of his painting, but iconography - the arrangement of figures, the use of a certain color, etc. in each specific plot and image. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was taken as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle.

In the XVI century. the formation of the Great Russian people is completed. In the Russian lands, which became part of a single state, more and more things were found in common in language, life, customs, customs, etc. In the XVI century. More tangibly than before, secular elements were manifested in culture.

Socio-political thought.

Events of the 16th century caused a discussion in Russian journalism of many problems of that time: about the nature and essence of state power, about the church, about the place of Russia among other countries, etc.

At the beginning of the XVI century. was created literary-journalistic and historical essay "The Tale of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir". This legendary work began with a story about the Great Flood. Then followed a list of rulers of the world, among whom the Roman emperor Augustus stood out in particular. He allegedly sent his brother Prus, who founded the family of the legendary Rurik, to the banks of the Vistula. The latter was invited as a Russian prince. The heir of Prus and Rurik, and consequently of August, Prince of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh received from the Emperor of Constantinople and the symbols of royal power - a cap-crown and precious barms-mantles. Ivan the Terrible, proceeding from his kinship with Monomakh, proudly wrote to the Swedish king: “We are related to Augustus Caesar.” The Russian state, according to Grozny, continued the traditions of Rome and the Kievan state.

In the ecclesiastical milieu, the thesis about Moscow, the “third Rome,” was put forward. Here the historical process acted as a change of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the "eternal city" - perished because of heresies; “to oh Rome” - Constantinople - because of the union with the Catholics; “Third Rome” – the true guardian of Christianity – Moscow, which will exist forever.

Reasoning about the need to create a strong autocratic power based on the nobility is contained in the writings of I.S. Peresvetova. Questions concerning the role and place of the nobility in the administration of the feudal state were reflected in the correspondence between Ivan IV and Prince Andrei Kurbsky.

chronicle writing

In the XVI century. Russian chronicle continued to develop. The writings of this genre include “The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom”, which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Russia. Another major work of that time is the “Book of Powers of the Royal Genealogy”. Portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans in it are arranged in 17 degrees - from Vladimir I to Ivan the Terrible. Such an arrangement and construction of the text, as it were, symbolizes the inviolability of the union of the church and the king.

In the middle of the XVI century. Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle code, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - the so-called Nikon Chronicle (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle contains about 16 thousand miniatures - color illustrations, for which it received the name of the Facial Vault (“face” - image).

Along with chronicle writing, historical stories, which told about the events of that time, received further development. (“Kazan Capture”, “On the Coming of Stefan Baiy to the City of Pskov”, etc.) New chronographs were created. The secularization of culture is evidenced by a book written at that time, containing a variety of useful information for guidance in both spiritual and worldly life - "Domostroy" (in translation - housekeeping), which is considered to be Sylvester.

Beginning of typography.

The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when the first Russian dated book “The Apostle” was published by the first printer Ivan Fedorov. However, there are seven books with no exact publication date. These are the so-called anonyms - books published before 1564. One of the most talented Russian people of the 16th century was involved in organizing the creation of a printing house. Ivan Fedorov. Printing work begun in the Kremlin was transferred to Nikolskaya Street, where a special building was built for the printing house. In addition to religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets in 1574 in Lvov published the first Russian primer - "ABC". Throughout the 16th century in Russia, only 20 books were printed by typography. The handwritten book occupied a leading place in both the 16th and 17th centuries.

Architecture.

One of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture was the construction of hipped temples. Tent temples do not have pillars inside, and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. The most famous monuments of this style are the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, the Pokrovsky Cathedral (St. Basil's), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.

Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of large five-domed monastery churches modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Similar temples were built in many Russian monasteries and as the main cathedrals - in the largest Russian cities. The most famous are the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. They were the centers of settlements inhabited by artisans of a certain specialty, and were dedicated to a certain saint - the patron of this craft.

In the XVI century. extensive construction of stone kremlins was carried out. In the 30s of the XVI century. part of the settlement adjacent to the Moscow Kremlin from the east was surrounded by a brick wall, called Kitaygorodskaya (a number of isiks believe that the name comes from the word “whale” - a knitting of poles used in the construction of fortresses, others believe that the name comes either from the Italian word - city , or from the Turkic - a fortress). The wall of Kitay-gorod protected the city of Red Square and the nearby settlements. At the very end of the XVI century. architect Fyodor Kon erected the white-stone walls of the 9-kilometer White City (modern Boulevard Ring). Then Zemlyanoy Val was erected in Moscow - a 15-kilometer wooden fortress on the rampart (modern Garden Ring).

Stone fortresses with fire were erected in the Volga region (Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan), in the cities to the south (Tula, Kolomna, Zaraisk, Serpukhov) and west of Moscow (Smolensk), in the north-west of Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Izborsk, Pechory ) and even in the far North (Solovki Islands).

Painting.

The largest Russian painter, who lived in the late XV - early XVI century, was Dionysius. The works belonging to his brush include the fresco painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda, an icon depicting scenes from the life of the Moscow Metropolitan Alexei, and others. Dionisy's painting is characterized by extraordinary brightness, festivity, and sophistication, which he achieved. applying such techniques as lengthening the proportions of the human Body, refinement in the decoration of every detail of an icon or fresco.

RUSSIAN CULTURE XVII.

In the 17th century the formation of the all-Russian market begins. With the development of handicrafts and trade, the growth of cities, the penetration into Russian culture and the widespread dissemination of secular elements in it are connected. This process was called in the literature "secularization" of culture (from the word "worldly" - secular).

The secularization of Russian culture was opposed by the church, which saw in it a Western, “Latin” influence. The Moscow rulers of the 17th century, seeking to limit the influence of the West in the person of foreigners arriving in Moscow, forced them to settle away from Muscovites - in the German settlement specially designated for them (now the area of ​​​​Bauman Street). However, new ideas and customs penetrated into the established life of Muscovite Russia. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people who were able to engage in diplomacy, to understand the innovations of military affairs, technology, manufacturing, etc. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia contributed to the expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe.

Education.

In the second half of the XVII century. several public schools were established. There was a school for the training of employees for central institutions, for the Printing House, the Pharmaceutical Order, etc. The printing press made it possible to publish uniform textbooks for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass circulation. The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by the sale in Moscow (1651) for one day of the “Primer” by V.F. Burtsev, published in 2400 copies. The "Grammar" of Meletius Smotrytsky (1648) and the multiplication table (1682) were published.

In 1687, the first institution of higher education, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was founded in Moscow, where they taught "from grammar, ri iki, piitika, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology." The Academy was headed by the brothers Sofrony and Ioanniky Likhud, Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. M.V. also studied at this academy. Lomonosov.

In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great successes were achieved in the field of medicine, in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure areas, distances, loose bodies, etc. with great accuracy), in observing nature.

Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev.

E.P. Khabarov in 1649 made a map and studied the lands along the Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. At the very end of the XVII century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

Literature.

In the 17th century created the last annalistic works. The “New Chronicler” (30s) recounted the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

Historical stories, which had a journalistic character, occupied a central place in isical literature. For example, a group of such stories (“Vremennik dyak Ivan Timofeev”, “The Tale of Avraamy Palitsyn”, “Another Tale”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the appearance in the 17th century of the genre of satirical story, where already fictional characters act. The “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “Kalyazinsky Petition” contained a parody of the church service, ridiculed the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks, in “The Tale of Ruff Yershovich” - judicial red tape and bribery. New genres were memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (Simeon of Polotsk).

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed essay on AI. The Kyiv monk Innokenty Gizel compiled a “Synopsis” (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint mission of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - the first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian AI.

Theatre.

A court theater was created in Moscow (1672), which lasted only four years. It featured German actors. Male and female roles were played by men. The repertoire of the theater included plays based on biblical and legendary stories. The court theater did not leave any noticeable trace in Russian culture.

In Russian cities and villages, since the time of Kievan Rus, a wandering theater has become widespread - the theater of buffoons and Petrushka (the main character of folk puppet shows). The government and Church authorities persecuted buffoonery for their cheerful and bold humor, exposing the vices of those in power.

Architecture.

Architectural buildings of the 17th century. are of great beauty. They are asymmetrical both within a single building and in an ensemble. However, in this apparent disorder of architectural volumes there is both integrity and unity. Buildings of the 17th century multicolored, decorative. Architects were especially fond of decorating the windows of buildings with intricate, unlike each other platbands. Widespread in the 17th century. received multi-colored “solar tiles” - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and brick. Such an abundance of decorations located on the walls of one building was called “stone pattern”, “wonderful pattern”.

These features are well traced in the Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the Kremlin, in the stone chambers of the Moscow, Pskov, Kostroma boyars of the 17th century that have come down to us, in the New Jerusalem Monastery, built near Moscow by Patriarch Nikon. The famous temples of Yaroslavl are close to them in style - the church of Elijah the Prophet and ensembles in Korovniki and Tolchkovo. As an example of the most famous buildings in Moscow of the 17th century. you can name the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (near the metro station "Park Kultury"), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putanki (near Pushkin Square), the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki (near the metro station "Kitay-Gorod").

The decorative beginning, which marked the secularization of art, was also reflected in the construction or reconstruction of fortifications. By the middle of the century, the fortresses had lost their military significance, and the hipped roof, first on Spasskaya and then on other towers of the Moscow Kremlin, gave way to magnificent tents that emphasized the calm grandeur and feminine power of the heart of the Russian capital.

In Rostov the Great, in the form of a Kremlin, the residence of the disgraced but powerful Metropolitan Jonah was built. This Kremlin was not a fortress, and its walls were purely decorative. The walls of large Russian monasteries erected after the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention (Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery near Vologda, Moscow monasteries), following the general fashion, were also decorated with decorative details.

The development of ancient Russian stone architecture ended with the folding of the style, which received the name “Naryshkinsky” (after the names of the main customers), or Moscow, baroque. Gate churches, the refectory and the bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent, the Church of the Intercession in Fili, churches and palaces in Sergiev Posad, Nizhny Novgorod, Zvenigorod and others were built in this style.

The Moscow baroque is characterized by a combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings. The number of storeys of buildings, the use of columns, capitals, etc. as decorative ornaments are clearly traced. Finally, in almost all the buildings of the “Naryshkino” Baroque one can see decorative shells in the cornices of buildings, which were first erected in the 16th century. by Italian masters when decorating the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The appearance of the Moscow baroque, which had common features with the architecture of the West, testified that Russian architecture, despite its originality, developed within the framework of a common European culture.

In the 17th century, wooden architecture flourished. “The eighth wonder of the world” was called by contemporaries the famous palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. This palace had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows and windows. It was built by Russian craftsmen Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and existed until the middle of the 18th century, when it was dismantled under Catherine II due to dilapidation.

Painting.

The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The greatest artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.

The trend towards a realistic depiction of a person and the secularization of icon painting, characteristic of the school of S. Ushakov, is closely connected with the spread in Russia of portraiture - “parsuna” (persons), depicting real characters, for example, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky and others. However, the technique of the artists was still similar to that of icon painting, i.e. wrote on the boards with egg paints. At the end of the XVII century. the first parsunas appeared, painted in oil on canvas, anticipating the heyday of Russian portrait art in the 18th century.

It is believed that the very first inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago came from India or Burma. In 1890, fossils of a Pithecanthropus (homo erectus) were found in East Java, approximately 500,000 years old. Later migrants ("Malays") came from southern China and Indochina, and began to inhabit the archipelago around 3000 BC. Powerful groups such as the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya and the Hindu kingdom of Mataram appeared in Java and Sumatra towards the end of the 7th century. The last significant kingdom founded by the Hindus was Majapahit in the 13th century. The subsequent spread of Islam in the archipelago in the 14th century forced the Majapahits to retreat in the 15th century to Bali.

Indonesia includes the full range of diverse societies and cultures. However, education, the media, and the government's policy of nationalism has created a distinct Indonesian national culture. Distinctive cuisine of Indonesia and her crafts, immediately brought her to the international arena.

Batik, the art of applying wax to fabric and then creating colorful and dramatic paintings, is carried out throughout Indonesia, with Jakarta in Java as the center of this activity. Other forms of handicrafts are represented by such types as ikat - a fabric of special weaving from decorated threads; songket - silk fabric with gold or silver threads; and kris are artwork, often embellished with jewels. Javanese wayang - puppet pieces and gamelan - hypnotic music composed mainly of percussion instruments - are also popular artistic forms.

Most Indonesian cuisine is influenced by the Chinese, but some of the dishes at Padang in Sumatra are truly authentic Indonesian. Wherever you travel in Indonesia, you will see snack vendors such as potatoes, sweet nuts, biscuits or fruits. Rice is the basis of every dish, it is put in soup or served as a side dish, participates in salads and marinades. The variety of tropical fruits would have swooned any European greengrocer. These include creamy apples, durios, guava, jak fruit, mango, papaya, star fruit and rambutans.

Social and religious obligations have, over time, formed a special code of conduct called adat or traditional law. Islam is the predominant religion of the archipelago, it is slightly diluted with elements of Hindu Buddhism, adat and animism. There are hundreds of places in Java where spiritual energy is concentrated, which, according to legend, followers can absorb. Despite the long colonial period, missionary attempts to convert the Indonesian population to Christianity came to nothing.

Culture of Indonesia

Architecture

The remains of megalithic structures found throughout Indonesia (I millennium BC - the first centuries AD) belong to the oldest period. The most significant of them are on the Pasemah Plateau (Southwest Sumatra). These are menhirs, dolmens, terraced stepped tombstones. The medieval period was characterized by the appearance in architecture of a peculiar culture, which was the result of a synthesis of local traditions and Hindu-Buddhist elements of architecture brought from India. In the 8th - 15th centuries, the leading types of architecture included chandi (which combined the functions of a temple and a mausoleum), stupa, stambha (memorial column, Sumatra), vihara (monastery, Java, Sumatra), and in the 15th - 16th centuries, chandi-shaped buildings (Eastern Java), gopura, meru (Bali). According to tradition, ornamentation (kalamakara, etc.) and stone sculpture were widely used. The most famous temple complexes include: in Central Java (VIII - X centuries): Dieng, Borobudur, Mendut, Prambanan, Kalasan; in East Java (XI - XV centuries): Travulan, Panataran, Singasari; in Sumatra - Padang Lavas; in Bali - Besakih, Gua Gajah ("Elephant Cave"). A feature of the architecture of Java in the late Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times was the construction of palaces-fortresses of local rulers - cratons (Yogyakarta, Surakarta, Cirebon).

The collapse of the Majapahit empire and the spread of Islam led to the decline of the Hindu culture. A mosque has become a typical religious building. It, as a rule, was a cubic building under a steep roof (sometimes in several tiers), crowned with a spire, less often with an “onion”, with an attached minaret. One of the oldest is the wooden mosque in Demak (1478). The mosque in Kudus (XVI century) is peculiar, the red brick minaret of which was rebuilt from chandi. The mosques of Baiturahan in Semarang, Bengkok (XVII century) in Medan, Jami Tambora in Jakarta are elegant. Civil buildings of this time - mainly the palaces of local rulers - cratons.

During the colonial period, architectural forms and construction methods familiar to the colonialists were introduced. Forts and other defensive objects were erected (Fort Rotterdam in Ujungpandang, 16th century; Marlborough Fort in Bengkulu, 16th-17th centuries; Fort de Kok in Bukittinggi, 1825; Medan Garnisun in Medan, 1873; the remains of the Batavia fortress in Jakarta, 1619), trading posts and engineering structures - canals, piers, dams, moorings, warehouses. Cities founded by the Dutch were laid out according to a regular plan with a church and a town hall in the center (town hall building in Jakarta, 1626), but further developed spontaneously. Characteristic was the principle of urban zoning along racial and ethnic lines (Dutch, Chinese, native quarters). The Dutch type of a stone one-story house on a high plinth with a red tiled roof and diamond-shaped windows has become widespread (Glodok and Jatinegara districts in modern Jakarta). Religious buildings were built - magnificent pseudo-Gothic Catholic cathedrals (the 17th-century cathedral in Jakarta, architect Hulswif), more modest Protestant churches.

At the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries. there were buildings in the “classical Empire” style - the palace of the governor-general (now the president) in Jakarta (1826) and his summer residences in Bogor and Chibodas; the building of the National Museum in Jakarta (1868), etc. From the end of the 19th century. buildings of a new type began to be erected (banks, railway stations, museums), urban development expanded, ports were built (Tanjung-Priok, 1877-83; Surabay port - with the participation of Russian civil engineer I.T. Blagov). At the beginning of the XX century. buildings in the “tropical modern” style are gaining popularity (the building of the former Stovia Medical School in Jakarta, the College of Technology in Bandung).

During the period of independence (after 1945), measures were taken to streamline urban planning and development (Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Bandung). Characteristic was the creation of large architectural ensembles using concrete, glass, steel: university campuses, sports complexes, large residential areas, satellite cities, hotels, department stores and shopping centers, airports, cultural and entertainment centers. The decoration of Jakarta was the central Merdeka Square with a majestic 137 m high stele-monument, at the base of which there is a historical museum, with a Diponegoro monument (the author is the Italian sculptor Cobertaldo) and singing fountains (1962 - 75), the largest Istiklal mosque in Southeast Asia (architect Silaban, 70-80s), Parliament building, Congress Palace (created with the participation of sculptors G. Sidharth and Sunaryo, artists A.D. Pirus, Priyanto, T. Sutanto, 60-70s). The modern architecture of the country reflects the typical features of world architecture and local traditions.

Folk architecture is represented by various types of dwellings: huts (Irian, Timor), light frame pile houses, large communal “long houses” of the Dayaks of Kalimantan, houses with saddle-shaped high-rise roofs in Batak toba and Minangkabau in Sumatra, traditional Javanese houses with a pyramidal ceiling depicting world mountain Meru.

art

The oldest monuments of fine art in Indonesia are rock paintings, petroglyphs and murals made with paints from local minerals and plants (mainly in the eastern part of the country from Kalimantan to Irian Jaya - caves of Abba, Sosorra, etc.): images of people, animals, especially fish , turtles and birds, boats, symbols of the moon and the setting sun. The painting reflects totemic and magical motifs, the cosmological ideas of the ancient Indonesians and the close connection of their life with the sea. Some images (in particular, boats) are preserved in the future in the form of roofs of houses, headscarves, etc.

Ornamentation and sculptural plasticity of megaliths presented in the Pasemah region in South Sumatra are also examples of ancient fine art: statuary images of animals (buffaloes, elephants) and human figures with swords and helmets, stone sarcophagi covered with ornaments.

Bronze processing reached great perfection. During the period of Dong Son culture, these are cult objects: ceremonial hatchets (Celts), vases, figures of ancestors, ritual drums (belonged to rain casters) with zoomorphic and anthropomorphic ornaments. Found on the island of Bali, a huge drum “Balinese moon” is decorated with an image of a human face with large, wide-open eyes and earlobes drawn by earrings. Later, with the advent of Hinduism and Buddhism (7th - 13th centuries), lampadas, trays, bells with floral patterns and statues of Buddha and bodhisattvas in the Amaravati style appeared, the appearance of which (static postures, impassivity of gaze, roundness of lines) reflected the Javanese concept of the transcendental world. Indian cultural canons were borrowed through their organic assimilation with local elements. The stone plastics and reliefs of the architectural and cultural complexes of Chandi Borobudur, Prambanan, Panataran are distinguished by high craftsmanship. Examples of the fine arts of the late Middle Ages are marked by an increase in decorativeness, dynamism of compositions and a simplified graphic interpretation of images (as in the wayange shadow theater). Ceramic sculpture (finds at Travulan) and the art of carving ritual-theatrical masks were developed.

The advent of Islam, with its canons forbidding the depiction of humans and animals, led to the decline of fine art in most of Indonesia, limiting it mainly to ornamentation. The continuity of ancient artistic traditions was preserved only in the shadow theater and some of its varieties (for example, in wayang beber) and the art of woodcarving (among tribes with animistic beliefs and in Jepara). Only on the island of Bali the traditions of fine arts were not interrupted: the school of stone and wooden sculpture, artistic carving, and painting remained. Despite the penetration of modern Western art, the culture of Bali basically demonstrates adherence to traditional canons: limited plot lines, image techniques (shackled, formal style, lack of expression), colors used.

Cinematography

Cinematography began to develop before the declaration of independence. The first film “Lutung Kasarung” (based on the Sundanese legend of the same name) appeared in 1927, it was directed by the Dutch G. Kruger and F. Carly. In 1930, G. Kruger staged the first sound picture "Nyai Dasima". Subsequently, the film industry was largely monopolized by Chinese capital (the film company of the Wong brothers, Java Film Company, Tan Film Company, etc.). During this period, films of an entertaining nature on fairy-tale and historical plots, as well as family melodramas, prevailed. Indonesian reality was reflected in a number of films: “Rice” (1935, directed by M. Franken), “Bright Moon” (1937, directed by A. Balink), “Nurabaya City” (1941, directed by Le Tek Swee). Artists Raden Mokhtar, Rukia Kartolo won great popularity. In 1941, 28 paintings were already delivered. During the Japanese occupation and during the period of the struggle against the Anglo-Dutch intervention, the Indonesians themselves became directors, but the number of paintings was sharply reduced (two in 1948). However, by 1952 there were already 13 film studios that released 62 films. The leading role was played by the association "Perfini", founded in 1950 by director Usmar Ismail. The filming of the first Perfini film, Blood and Prayer, began on March 30, 1950 in Indonesia as National Film Day. The development of non-fiction films was promoted by the creation in 1950 of the state film corporation PFS. In the pictures of national cinema until the mid-60s. patriotic themes prevailed (directors Usmar Ismail, Asrul Sani). Among the actors, R. Ismail, Bambang Hermanto, Sukarno M. Nur, Panji Anom, actresses Chitra Devi, Mila Karmila, Farida Aryani gained fame.

The political events associated with the Movement of September 30, 1965 had a negative impact on the position of the cinema: a number of figures were subjected to repression, production was reduced to 6-12 films a year. The recession was overcome only by the mid-1970s, when a decree was adopted obliging importers to produce one Indonesian film for five imported films, and the national distribution organization Perfin was created (1975). In the 70-80s. cinema was dominated by parlor and historical melodramas, comedies, and horror films. However, even among them there were paintings of a high humanistic sound, which reflected the problems of modern society (“Cycle rickshaw and a beggar woman” by Wim Umboch, 1978). The films of VGIK graduates Ami Prieno (“Jakarta, Jakarta”, 1977; “December Memoirs”, 1977) and Shamanjai (“Atheist”, 1974; “Kartini”, 1982), as well as Teguha Karya (“November 1928” , 1979; “Mother”, 1986) In the early 80s, a series of puppet films about a village boy “Si Uniil” (posted by Kunain Suhardiman) appeared.

There are about 2,500 cinemas in Indonesia, up to 70 feature films are created a year, more than 200 are imported. The Academy of Cinematography (founded in 1977) functions, and film festivals are held annually (since 1973). There are 17,220 national and 106,342 foreign films in video distribution.

Literature

The ethnic kinship of most of the peoples of Indonesia, the commonality of their historical destinies and centuries-old cultural contacts led to a certain unity of both folklore and the literary process as a whole.

In the origin (not earlier than the 8th century) of written literature, ancient Indian (Sanskrit) literature of the Hindu and, to a lesser extent, Buddhist complexes played a formative role. In a modified form, Indian myths from the Mahabharata and Ramayana also penetrated into the folklore of many peoples. Later, legends about the ascetics of Islam and the heroes of Arabic and Persian literature underwent a similar transformation.

Unlike folklore, which existed in the native language of each ethnic group, medieval written literature is characterized by the presence of two main languages ​​- Javanese and Malay. The first was used in the Javanese cultural zone (Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok), inhabited, in addition to Javanese, by Sunds, Balinese, Madurese and Sasaks. The second - in the Malay cultural zone, which includes all other islands, and historically - the territory of present-day Malaysia. Not only ethnic Malays and Minangkabau, but also Aches, Bugis, Makassars, partly Bataks, as well as residents of the Moluccas, some Lesser Sunda Islands, etc. took part in the creation of traditional literature in the Malay language.

All these peoples in the XVIII - XIX centuries. (and occasionally earlier) they also turned to written art in their native languages, while the verbal art of other ethnic groups did not go beyond the oral folklore stage.

From the middle of the XIX - at the beginning of the XX centuries. Enlightenment tendencies appear in local literary works. At the same time, the press and urban literature in the “low” (vulgar) Malay language was born. In the first half of the XX century. individual writers also used the Dutch language in journalism and art, partly also claiming to be the language of interethnic communication.

Being the most developed and dynamic, national Indonesian literature finally asserts itself after Indonesia gained independence (1945). Written literature in local languages ​​is also undergoing significant changes. Bilingualism, characteristic of most of the country's inhabitants, is also manifested to some extent in literature, with individual modern writers creating works both in the national Indonesian and in their (“mother”) languages.

Music

Traditional musical art is a significant part of the sound and musical creativity of the Indonesian peoples. These are gamelan orchestras, angklung ensembles, tembang solo singing, various theatrical and dance styles (performances of the wayang theater, topeng, etc., bedaya, legong dances, etc.), represented by both urban professional troupes and rural amateur groups. Interaction with Western musical traditions began with the penetration of the Portuguese and Dutch (XVI - XVII centuries). Choral music of a cult type was spreading in Catholic missions, brass bands of military garrisons became popular. The most obvious synthesis of local traditions with Western subculture was observed in urban popular art. On the territory of modern Jakarta already in the XVI - XVII centuries. hybrid genres, forms and styles of music began to take shape, uniting Western European and Asian traditions. Typical in this regard is the vocal-instrumental tradition of kronchong, dating back to the early colonial period. In the XVIII - early XX centuries. popular music orchestras appear in the cities, including both local and borrowed types of instruments: tanjidor brass bands (comprising trumpets, trombones, clarinets, horns, as well as rebab, bedug drum, gong kedang); so-called. the Chinese ensembles of Batavia - gambang kromong (since the beginning of the 19th century, they included Chinese, Sundanese, Malay, Portuguese instruments); later - orchestras that accompanied the singing of kronchong and others.

Notable Indonesian composers include Ismail Marzuki (1914-58), Gesang (b. 1915), Supratman (1903-38), Cornel Simanjuntak (1920-46), K.R. T. Madukusuma (1895-1972), N. Situmorang (1908-69), S. Sitompul (1904-74), K.R. T. Varsodiningrat (1882-1975). Among the traditional musicians: V. Beratha (b. 1924), I. Nyoman Kaler (1892-982), Koko Koswara (b. 1915), Tihang Gultom (1896-1970).

Dance

Due to the isolation of individual islands, many dances in Indonesia have retained their original ritual forms. Costumes, styles of musical accompaniment, technique and plasticity of movements are very diverse - from strict court dramas of Central Java, using complex polyphonic music, to archaic rhythmic dances in Irian Jaya. Classical dance took shape in the 13th - 14th centuries. at the courts of Javanese rulers on the basis of a synthesis of animistic rituals and Hindu-Buddhist canons and until the beginning of the 20th century. remained aristocratic. The dancers were selected only from noble families close to the cratons of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. A characteristic feature of classical dance is a peculiar combination of stiffness and grace in postures and movements, designed to reflect the sophistication of court tastes. Moving in accordance with the given choreographic patterns, the dancers often freeze, fixing their poses, with downcast eyes. Slow rhythmic movements, postures of meditation, the melody of a gamelan accompanying the dance have a hypnotic effect on the viewer. Significant importance in Javanese classical dance is given to the movements of the arms, legs, head and body, as well as to the language of gestures. It takes years of training to achieve body control, which is demonstrated by the bedaya or serimpi dancers. Many Javanese classical dances are about the struggle of gods, princes and heroes. The second most important school of classical dance - the Balinese one - was formed on the basis of mysterial actions under the influence of Indian and Javanese canons. Dancers move in a zigzag circle, arms bent at shoulder level with elbows up, head drawn in. An unexpected change in the direction of movement, the accuracy of sharp steps is a feature of Balinese choreography. Almost all Balinese dances are plot dances, many of them include pantomime and clowning (barongan, legong). They are performed, as a rule, in an open area near the temple (pura) or in it during religious ceremonies or holidays.

Folk dances are very diverse, including those on the themes of rural labor performed at harvest festivals: rangguk (Jambi), agilis (Madura), bunchis (West Java), kurung-kurung (South Kalimantan), pacarena (South Sulawesi); ritual dances: sanghyang dedari (Bali), sanjang (Balambangan), etc.; dances expressing the nature and habits of animals and birds: indang barabah (West Sumatra); dances demonstrating the warrior spirit, valor and heroism: baris (Bali), emblek, kuda kepang (Java), ice-hava (Savu island), leko hay (Timor island); modern mass dances: pendet, janger (Bali), joget (everywhere), gundrung (Banyuwangi), ketu tilu (Java); martial arts stylized as a dance (penchak silat); dances with a pronounced Muslim flavor: saman (Ache), japin (South Kalimantan, Riau).

Classical and folk dances are being developed in the productions of contemporary choreographers (Kusumakesovo created the Ramayana Dance Theater in 1961; the artist Bagong Kusudiarjo founded a troupe in Yogyakarta in 1958). Choreographic training is carried out at the Conservatory of Music and Dance in Denpasar, the Academy of Music and Dance in Surakarta, at the Bagong Kusudiarjo School and at the Krido Beksa Virama School in Yogyakarta, at the Institute of Art Education in Jakarta.

Theatre

The performing arts were most developed in the Javanese cultural zone. The main form of traditional theater associated with ancient theatrical rituals and cults is wayang. Varieties: wayang kulit, or wayang purvo (shadow theater of flat leather puppets); wayang klitik (flat wooden puppet theatre); wayang golek (cane volumetric wooden puppet theatre); wayang beber (the theater of the presentation of paintings painted on the canvas); wayang wong or wayang orang (live actor theatre); wayang topeng (mask theater). The first three types are characterized by a verbal beginning, for the other two - choreography and pantomime.

All types of wayang are united by the common plots associated with a mythological or mytho-historical cycle (local versions of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, cycles about Panji, Damar Wulan, Menakjing, Chalon Arang, etc.), and typologies of heroes, stylization of images and tension actions. The common thing is the presence of a leader - dalang: in wayang kulit and wayang golek he manipulates the puppets, pronounces dialogues, explains the course of events; in wayang topeng and wayang beber he directs musicians and singer-dancers whose performances, which are not related to the plot, create the appropriate mood among the audience; in wayang wong, where the actors themselves sing and pronounce dialogues, he explains the course of events, makes offerings to the gods before the start of the performance. A necessary attribute of all types of wayang is kayon or gunungan - a decorative headpiece in the form of a leaf, symbolizing the world mountain (Meru) or the world tree. It is set before and after performances, as well as during breaks and at moments of change of action, and at the same time can serve as a decoration (depict a tree, mountain, fire, etc.).

The most popular is wayang kulit, whose canons have also influenced other types of wayang: actors in wayang wong, for example, dance, imitating the movements of flat leather puppets. Leading wayang troupes include Srividari, founded in 1895 in Surakarta by Chinese entrepreneur Gan Kim.

The best-known form of traditional theater outside the Javanese cultural zone is mayong (Riau archipelago). In the 19th century spectacles typologically close to such European theatrical genres as vaudeville and melodrama became widespread in the cities. These are Malay opera bangsavan, or comedy istanbul, Sundanese sandivara, Javanese ludruk and ketoprak, Jakarta lenong. A large place in them is occupied by clownish interludes, songs and dances that are not directly related to the main plot. The themes of the plays are borrowed from chronicles, legends, fairy tales (“Thousand and One Nights”), urban stories of the late 19th century. (“Nyai Dasima”, “Si Chonath”), popular European novels. Later, original plays appeared (Anjar Asmara and others). Great fame in the 30s. 20th century had the Jakarta troupe "Miss Chuchih" (sandivara), in the 40s. - “Opera Dardanelle” (Comedy-Istanbul). Currently, “Ludruk Mandala” and “Sri Mulat” are popular.

The first dramatic productions appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. and were carried out mainly in school theaters. At the same time, dramaturgy in Indonesian began to develop. In the late 20s - early 30s. Significant dramatic works are created by such Indonesian writers as Rustam Effendi, Muhammad Yamin, Sanusi Pane, Armain Pane. During the years of Japanese occupation and the struggle against the Dutch intervention, the troupes led by Usmar Ismail and Anjar Asmara became famous. In the 50s. Utui Tatang Sontani, Abu Hanifa, Ahdiat Kartamihardja, Sitor Situmorang, V.S. Rendra, Agam Wispi, Bakhtiar Siagaan, Mottingo Boucher. The best plays created during this period are characterized by democracy, social pathos, and the search for new ways of developing theatrical art.

Modern national dramaturgy is dominated by surrealistic and neo-expressionistic tendencies (Arifin S. Nur), absurd drama (Putu Vijaya) and philosophical plays (F.K. Marta). The tragedies of Sophocles, Shakespeare, Schiller, plays by Chekhov, Gogol, Brecht, Camus, Becket, Ionesco are staged. Many of them are adapted to local conditions. The main theaters and troupes are concentrated in Jakarta. Among them are “Koma Theater” (directed by N. Raintiarno), “Kechil Theater” (directed by Arifin S. Nur), “Mandiri Theater” (directed by Putu Vijaya), “Populer Theater” (directed by Teguh Karya), “ Lisendra Buana” (headed by Chok Hendru), “Lembaga Theater” (headed by Senombung), “Saja Theater” (headed by Ikranegar), “September Theater” (headed by Ali Shahab). The Bengkel Theater in Yogyakarta (headed by V. S. Rendra) is very famous. The movement of university and other amateur semi-professional theaters has received significant development. In the 70s - 80s. theater festivals held by the Jakarta Cultural Center in Ismail Marzuki Park have become a frequent occurrence. The main training center for the theater is the National Theater Academy, established by Usmar Ismail in 1955.

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