A short dictionary of aesthetics. The artistic merits of the novel "A Hero of Our Time

Agnia Lvovna Barto was born in Moscow in the family of a doctor - a veterinarian. She studied at an educational school, at the same time attended a theater school, wanted to become an actress. She began to write poetry early: they were mischievous epigrams for teachers and girlfriends. At the age of 20, her first poems appeared in print. A. Barto widely used the means of humor even when she told young children about a toy bunny, a bear, a bull, a horse. (“Toys 1936)
There is a goby, swinging,
Sighs on the go:
- Oh, the board is over,
Now I will fall!
Each toy in the image of the poetess acquires individuality:
Time to sleep!
The bull fell asleep
He lay down in a box on a barrel.
Sleepy bear went to bed
Only the elephant does not want to sleep.
Elephant nods its head
He sends a bow to the elephant.
A. Barto's toys are full participants in children's life, friends of kids:
I love my horse
I will comb her hair smoothly,
I stroke the ponytail with a scallop
And I'll go on horseback to visit.
Such a feature in poems about toys attracts attention, as a rule they are written in the first person, if we are talking about some good deeds of children - “I am pulling a boat along a fast river ...”; “No, in vain we decided to ride the cat in the car ...”; “We will build the plane ourselves ....” and in the third person, when there are no active actions of the child or bad deeds “The bunny was abandoned by the hostess ...”; "Our Tanya loudly ...".
This technique helps to establish positive character traits in young readers.
More than one generation of Soviet people have known and loved the poems of A. Barto since childhood. The secret of such popularity is in the freshness and immediacy of the feelings conveyed by the poetess, in her ability to solve the most important pedagogical problems in a vivid artistic form.
Poems by A. Barto is a chronicle of Soviet childhood. The heroes of these poems are children from a toddler who still cannot pronounce the word "mother" to a 14-year-old teenager who is preparing to join the Komsomol. With such knowledge of child psychology, the poetess creates books for the little ones. And the collection "Toys" of 1936, composed of light sonorous poems about favorite children's toys - a shaggy bear, a bull, a ball, a horse, etc., serves as an image of such a book.

Having no analogues in children's poetry of the world, is a cycle of international poems by A. Barto - "Translations from children". Many children's poems

read and sympathize with the poetess in order to feel the mood of a child living in one part of the world or another. Only after that did she begin to create poems that preserve the immediacy of the vision of the world by children from different countries. “Many people have in common “small poets”, but often their experiences are deeper, richer than a child is able to express. So I tried to preserve the meaning of each poem, to find for it that poetic form that would make it possible to clarify, more accurately convey what was said by the child, ”said A. Barto about the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthis cycle. The problems of the poems of the cycle are diverse: attitude towards nature, love for mother, first childhood love, concern for the future.
"Translations from children"- a landmark work not only in the work of A. Barto, but also in world children's literature. This cycle created an innovative tradition in the search for poetic self-expression of the children's poets of the world. The ability to find new opportunities for poetic self-expression, to pass on the baton of traditions is one of the most important features of A. Barto's work for more than one decade. The talent of A. Barto did not stop in its development, she strove to say a new poetic word to each new young generation of readers.
Written at different times, Barto's poems for children are collected in two-volume "Poems for children", in collections of poems “For Flowers in the Winter Forest”, “Just Poems”, “Your Poems” and others. The heroes of her books are children from infancy to 14 years of age.
Barto's poems are loved by children of all ages. The secret of such popularity lies in the freshness and immediacy of the feelings conveyed by the poetess, in her ability to solve the most important pedagogical problems in a vivid artistic form.
The rhyme of Barto's poems is rich and varied. She is always loud and strong. In the poems of the poetess, the richness of content is organically combined with a highly artistic form.
A. Fadeev wrote: "A. Barto's creativity, full of love for life, clear, sunny, courageous, kind, it brings joy to people, raising more than one generation of children."

Aug 02 2010

Techniques give the right to consider it one of the masterpieces of dramatic literature. Admiring the play in The Thunderstorm, I. A. Goncharov wrote: “From whatever side it is taken, from the side of the plan of creation, or dramatic movement, or, finally, characters, it is everywhere imprinted with the power of creativity, subtlety of observation and grace finishes". Goncharov especially emphasized the typicality of the images of The Thunderstorm: “Every face in the drama is a typical character, snatched directly from the environment of folk life. gave a whole, diverse world of personalities existing at every step. To this we can add that the city of Kalinov itself, depicted in.

The action of the drama is revealed with a deep internal regularity, harmoniously and naturally. At the same time, the playwright skillfully uses such compositional techniques that give the play a special stage presence, and the movement of action - sharpness and tension. This is the way the landscape is used throughout the play.

The landscape performs a double function in The Thunderstorm. At the beginning of the play, he is the background against which the dramatic action unfolds.

He, as it were, emphasizes the discrepancy between the dead, motionless life of the Kalinovites and their "cruel morals", on the one hand, and the beautiful gifts of nature that Kalinovtsy do not know how to appreciate, on the other. This landscape is really beautiful. Admiring him, he says to Boris:

• "All right, sir, let's go for a walk now.
• Silence, the air is excellent,
• because of the Volga, the meadows smell of flowers, the sky is clear.
• The abyss opened, the stars of the regiment.
• The stars of the number of ket, the abyss of the bottom.

But Kuligin - a dreamer - is alone in the city with his enthusiastic attitude towards nature. The more vividly the indifference to everything graceful, beautiful is outlined on the part of the Wild and Kabanovs, who are ready to stifle any manifestation of a good, natural feeling in their environment. The thunderstorm plays a different role in the play in the first and fourth acts. A thunderstorm in nature, an atmospheric thunderstorm, here directly intrudes into the spiritual drama of the heroine, influencing the very outcome of this drama. It comes at the moment of Katerina's most powerful experiences.

In the soul of Katerina, under the influence of a feeling of love for Boris, confusion begins. She betrays her secret to Varvara and struggles between two feelings: love for Boris and the consciousness of sinfulness, the “illegality” of this love. Katerina feels as if some kind of misfortune is approaching her, terrible and inevitable - and at this time a thunderstorm begins. "Thunderstorm! Let's run home! Hurry!” she exclaims in horror. The first thunderclaps are heard - and Katerina exclaims: “Oh, hurry, hurry!” This is in the first act of the play. But here comes the storm again:

Woman. Well, the whole sky was overlaid. Exactly with a hat, and covered it.

1st walker. Eko, my brother, it’s as if a cloud is twisting in a ball, it’s as if the living thing is tossing and turning in it.

2nd walker. You mark my word that this thunderstorm will not pass in vain ... Either it will kill someone, or the house will burn down ...

KATERINA (listening). What they're saying? They say they'll kill someone... Tisha, I know who they'll kill... They'll kill me. A thunderstorm breaks out, and Katerina's tense nerves cannot stand it: she publicly repents of her guilt. Thunderclap - and she falls senseless.

The role of the old “lady with two lackeys” also has an important compositional significance. Her appearance also coincides with the pictures of a thunderstorm. “To be a sin of some kind,” says Katerina. “Such a fear for me, such a fear for me! It’s as if I’m standing over an abyss, and someone is pushing me there…”

Oka is afraid of temptation, the “terrible sin” of forbidden love - and then the old woman appears with her ominous speeches: “What, beauties? What are you doing here? Are you waiting for the good fellows, gentlemen? Are you having fun? Fun? Does your beauty make you happy? Here, here, in the very pool, ”she prophesies Katerina her fate. In the distance, behind the Volga, clouds are crawling, enveloping the sky before a thunderstorm.

The lady with a stick and two lackeys with triangular hats behind are shown once again at the moment of the highest tension of the play. Thunder rumbles. Katerina again hears the words of the crazy old woman: “What are you hiding? Nothing to hide! It can be seen that you are afraid: you don’t want to die! .. It’s better with beauty in the pool. Everything will burn in fire in inextinguishable! Katerina, horrified, runs up to the wall of the gallery and, as if on purpose, kneels down near the picture depicting “gehenna fiery”: “Hell! Hell! Hell! Gehenna fiery! Kabanova, Kabanov and Varvara surround her. The whole heart is broken! I can't take it anymore. Mother! Tikhon! I am a sinner before God"

Kudryash, unlike Boris, is lively, courageous, dexterous, able to stand up for himself even in front of Dikiy; simply and easily looks at Varvara, does not suffer from remorse, like Katerina, and does not even understand her torment. “In my opinion,” she argues, “do whatever you want, as long as it’s sewn and covered.” Varvara does not let herself be offended, does not succumb to her mother and, defending her freedom, runs away from home with Kudryash.

Ostrovsky also emphasizes the characteristic qualities of the heroes with the so-called significant or pictorial surnames, with the help of which the author reveals the inner world of his heroes, the dominant features of their character (Wild - a wild man, Kudryash - a curly good fellow, Tikhon - a quiet person, Kuligin - similar to Kulibin ). This method of characterization is generally widely used in Ostrovsky's dramaturgy, and his heroes bear not only allegorical surnames and names: Gordey and Lyubim Tortsov in "Poverty is not a vice", Terrible Power in the dramatic scenes "True is good, but better", Lup Lupych is an official in "Abyss", etc.

So, Kuligin, an admirer of Lomonosov and Derzhavin, is somewhat old-fashioned. The influence of bookish Church Slavonic turns is felt in it. Curly's language is dotted with vernacular words (slobodanno, let's go ... in revelry) folk proverbs, sayings and proverbs; the clerk's eloquence is also visible in it.

The wanderer Feklusha weaves her flattering words, talks about her wonderful “visions” and about the lands “where all the people are with dog heads,” and by itself draws a hypocrite and saint, living at the expense of philistine darkness and ignorance.

It is advisable to separate into a separate group folk toy: Russian and Belarusian.

Their themes are the most diverse, reflecting the work and life of the people, their attitude to the environment, the plots of fairy tales.

A feature of this type of toys is the expressiveness of images, conventionality, generalization, dynamism, decorativeness. Folk toys embody the best artistic traditions, introduce children to the culture of their people, and lay the foundation for ties with their homeland. At the same time, toys created in different places are unique in content, material, and artistic style.

In the Belarusian folk toy there are both general signs that bring it closer to the toys of other peoples, and special ones that are peculiar only to it: compactness, generalization, conciseness, economy, expressiveness of visual means. In this toy, naivete is refracted in a peculiar way, and at the same time wisdom, fantasy and reality. It stimulates the active work of thought, encourages self-improvement, one's own reading of the toy image.

The Belarusian folk toy, as a rule, is small in size and very convenient to use.

The functionality and compactness of this toy allows children to actively use it. In Belarus, the most ancient is a clay toy depicting figures of people, animals, rattles. A wooden toy, usually with an intonation of movements or actions, had a significant distribution in folk life. Interesting, original toys made of straw with an ancient history. Their purpose is very wide: for playing, in agricultural ceremonies, at holidays, for decorating the house, etc. In peasant families, linen toys were used.

Dymkovo toy. Figurines sculpted from clay and brightly colored. The origins of the appearance of the Dymkovo mistress, horses, whistles, water carriers are rooted far into history.

Gzhel products are always easy to distinguish: they are made of white clay and painted with bluish-blue broad strokes, reproducing floral arrangements or scenes from folk life.

Skopinsky products are beautiful and intricate. A distinctive feature is the brilliant vitreous glaze that covered the products.

The original traditional craft of making clay toys has been preserved in the city of Kargopol.

Filimonov toy. Its plasticity is peculiar, the primitiveness of the sculptural form easily coexists with special expressiveness and grace.

A characteristic feature of the Gorodets craft is the execution of a drawing on a natural background of wood; bright colors and painting on the principle of placing large colorful spots.

Bogorodsk toys are carved from wood, not painted, only sometimes covered with stain or varnish. A distinctive feature is the toys "with movement".

In the Fedoseevskaya "toporshchina" toys are knocked together from hewn boards and splinter. But the festivity of the yellow color and its closeness to everyday life has always attracted children.

The first nesting doll in Russia appeared at the end of the 19th century. Sergiev Posad, Babenka village, Merinovo village - places where Russian nesting dolls are made.

“The greatest truth and simplicity of a folk toy,” writes E.A. Flerina, - her expressiveness and expediency made her useful for raising children. Like a native speech, a fairy tale, a song, a folk toy is a wonderful cultural heritage. The folk toy of the millennium brought up the child, it is checked, by children's love for it, by child's play.

The toy of each nation has its own pedagogical, artistic and technical traditions, simple and clear. These traditions have, on the one hand, international features, and, on the other hand, features determined by the national identity of the culture, way of life, and pedagogy of a particular people. The folk toy has its own history, which confirms that it is not an accidental phenomenon, but a steadily developing branch of folk art that has its own traditions.

Approaching the folk toy from a pedagogical point of view, we see that it is based on a subtle knowledge of the psychology of the child and has a versatile effect on the development of his feelings, mind and character.

There is no artificiality in the folk toy. The toy was formed at a time when the interests of adults and children were close to each other, when the creativity of both had many common features, when there was a natural closeness in the psyche and attitude of both. The toy was interesting for both children and adults (the doll was attached to a pole to the house, gathered adults for a holiday).

The plot toy displays the world of fairy tales and fairy-tale images, as well as the circle of life phenomena that the child encounters in everyday life. Figures of a woman, a horse, a rooster, a bear, traditional for fine folk art, presented both in a toy and in embroidery, carving, show the organic connection of a toy with folk art. In it, as in embroidery, these figures are interpreted in a conditional, fabulous way.

The greatest truth and simplicity of attitude, great expressiveness and expediency, the desire to understand the environment and master it provided the toy with all the pedagogical qualities: it pleased, developed creativity, taught to understand the surrounding life, taught to master the main types of adult work. These qualities are preserved in folk toys in the future, with the emergence and development of handicrafts.

In a folk toy, the people give the child their love and affection, their gaiety and laughter, their thoughts and knowledge, their skills - this is the great power of its influence on the child. Through a folk toy, someone very close and affectionate speaks to the child truthfully, wisely. The strength of this people's love for a child speaks through the lips of a grandmother amusing her granddaughter.

What educational values ​​does a folk toy bring with it? There is a lot of warmth in the folk toy, which is expressed in its caring, loving performance: a clay Dymkovo toy splashing with colors, a sunny wooden Semenov toy, festive, bright red Gorodets horses.

Folk toy cheerful, cheerful. A lot of genuine humor was invested by the people in their toy. Funny clowns, a clown on a string, butting rams, flying birds, with feathers on their tails rotating at the same time, and many others delight the child. And the master knows about this joy, children's laughter from unexpected movement, sound, and he himself has fun creating these toys.

Folk toy awakens the thought and imagination of the child. In an image and uncomplicated, but witty technique of movement, sound, with its fabulous, decorative interpretation. Many toys are a true fairy tale. Such are all Dymkovo animals, birds (turkeys and geese in gold and in bright assemblies, spotted and striped horses).

A folk toy is made according to all the laws of stylization (when one or two important details stand out, for example, the species characteristics of a particular animal), so it teaches a child to think more generally from an early age, influences the development of children not only figurative, but also abstract thinking.

The folk toy says that the people are a subtle psychologist who knows how to see and understand the child as he is, with his interests and needs.

Folk pedagogy has created all the main types of toys for each age: rattles for young children (with noise, movement, bright colors); wonderful wheelchairs for a kid of 2-4 years old (Gorodets skates, Semenov cockerels, Kirov turntables, etc.). Horses and other animals were put on wheels to satisfy the child's need for movement. The size of the toy for children of this age should be large, since the baby in the game with the toy is the central character. For the older ones, the sets are more complicated in content (animals - Bogorodsk wooden and Zagorsk ones made of papier-mâché, collapsible toys, etc.)

The ball, the hoop are the oldest folk toys, created simultaneously by different peoples. We meet them in ancient Egypt, in antique toys. Babensky turners create original "didactic" collapsible toys: pyramids, nesting dolls, folding eggs, barrels, etc. This toy in color, shape, size is unmatched in the Western market. In the design of the folk toy, we see that the master takes into account the peculiarities of the children's age: a more simplified, conditional in shape, color toy for kids - whistles, Gorodets horses, and more realistic for older ones - Bogorodsk carving.

A folk toy not only pleases, amuses, not only develops aesthetically, it gives scope for creative play that orients in the surrounding life and teaches the child work and technology. Even in a funny toy, very often the child is shown scenes from working life (blacksmiths forge, the hostess feeds chickens, etc.). Everything that through the game gradually introduces the child into the working life of adults.

The aesthetic in a toy, without the deliberate intention of adapting to the tastes of children, brings to the child a great artistic culture of folk art, develops the original features of the aesthetics of its people. It gives a folk toy of every nationality. Russian folk toy is full of traditions of national Russian art: simplicity and clear rhythm of the form of decorative painting, ornamentality: irresistible brightness and noble restraint in the selection of colors, which are associated with local traditions in decoration.

No other kind of folk art so actively and deeply nurtures the national traits of aesthetic feeling in a child as a folk toy, which the child loves, with which he actively and creatively acts.

The technique of folk toys is always simple, accessible to children's understanding and often very witty, built on the simplest laws of technology and mechanics. This arouses great interest in children and pushes them to technical inventions.

In a Russian folk toy, the problem of realism is interestingly resolved. Realism in art for children is a valuable beginning that provides simple and truthful art. The feeling, often naive, but quite sincere, which the master puts into his work, is given by healthy realism, on which both the fairy tale and the decoratively festive elegant Dymkovo toy, Semenov and Gorodets toys are based. The real basis of the fairy tale is here on the face. Simplicity, incompleteness of the image (Gorodets skates), brightness do not at all deprive the toy of the feeling of a real image, on the contrary, they make it more tangible, as they concentrate the child's attention on the main thing and serve the main thing with the utmost clarity.

Having become acquainted with the composition of the novel “A Hero of Our Time”, which is unusual and complex, I would like to note the artistic merits of the novel. The Lermontov landscape has a very important feature: it is closely connected with the experiences of the characters, expresses their feelings and moods, the whole novel is imbued with deep lyricism. From here comes the passionate emotionality, the excitement of the descriptions of nature, which creates a sense of the musicality of his prose. The silvery thread of the rivers and the bluish fog gliding through the water, escaping into the gorges of the mountains from warm rays, and the sparkle of snow on the crests of the mountains - the exact and fresh colors of Lermontov's prose are very reliable. In "Bela" we are fascinated by the truthfully drawn pictures of the manners of the highlanders, their harsh way of life, their poverty. Lermontov writes: “The saklya was stuck on one side to the rock, three wet steps led to its door. I groped my way in and ran into a cow, I didn’t know where to go: here sheep bleat, there a dog grumbles. The people of the Caucasus lived hard and sadly, oppressed by their princes, as well as by the tsarist government, which considered them "natives of Russia." Showing the shadow side of the life of the highlanders, Lermontov sympathizes with the people. The majestic pictures of mountain nature are drawn very talentedly. The artistic description of nature in the novel is very important in revealing the image of Pechorin. In Pechorin's diary, we often come across a description of nature associated with certain thoughts, feelings, moods, and this helps us to penetrate into his soul, to understand many of his character traits. Pechorin is a poetic person, passionately loving nature, able to figuratively convey what he sees. Often his thoughts about nature seem to be intertwined with his thoughts about people, about himself. Pechorin masterfully describes the nature of the night /his diary, May 16/ with its lights in the windows and "gloomy, snowy mountains". Sometimes pictures of nature serve as an occasion for thought, reasoning, comparison. An example of such a landscape is the description of the starry sky in the story “The Fatalist”, the appearance of which leads him to reflect on the fate of a generation. Exiled to the fortress, Pechorin is bored, nature seems boring to him. The landscape here also helps to understand the state of mind of the hero. This is served by the description of the agitated sea in the story “Taman”. The picture that opens up to Gregory from the square where the duel was to take place, the view of the sun, the rays of which do not warm Pechorin after the duel, all nature is sad. Thus, we see that the description of nature occupies a large place a. revealing the personality of Pechorin. Only alone with nature Pechorin experiences the deepest joy. “I don’t remember a deeper and fresher morning!” - exclaims Pechorin, struck by the beauty of the sunrise in the mountains. Pechorin's last hopes are also directed to the endless expanses of the sea, the sound of the waves. Comparing himself to a sailor born and raised on the deck of a robber brig, he says that he misses the coastal sand, listens to the roar of the oncoming waves and peers into the distance covered with fog. Lermontov was very fond of the sea, his poem "Sail" echoes the novel "A Hero of Our Time". Pechorin is looking for the desired “sail” in the sea. Neither for Lermontov nor for the hero of his novel did this dream come true: the “desired sail” did not appear and rush them off to another life, to other shores on the last pages of the novel. Pgchorin calls himself and his generation "miserable descendants wandering the earth without conviction and pride, without pleasure and fear." The marvelous image of a sail is a longing for a failed life. The story “Princess Mary” opens with a wonderful landscape. Pechorin writes in his diary: “I have a wonderful view from three sides.” Lermontov was highly appreciated by Chekhov. He wrote; “I don't know a better language than Lermontov's. I learned to write from him.” The language of the novel "A Hero of Our Time" delighted the greatest masters of the word. “No one has ever written in our country in such correct, beautiful and fragrant prose,” Gogol said about Lermontov. Like Pushkin, Lermontov ^ achieved the accuracy and clarity of each phrase, its refinement. The language of the novel is the fruit of the author's extensive work on manuscripts. Pechorin's language is very poetic, the flexible structure of his speech testifies to a man of great culture, with a subtle and penetrating mind. The richness of the language of the novel is based on Lermontov's personal attitude to nature. He wrote a novel in the Caucasus, nature inspired him. The central part of the novel, Pechorin's Diary, is characterized by a particularly in-depth psychological analysis. For the first time in Russian literature, such a merciless exposure by the hero of his personality appears. The hero's experiences are analyzed by him with "the severity of a judge and a citizen." Pechorin says: “I still try to explain to myself what kind of feelings boil in my chest.” The habit of introspection is complemented by the skills of constant observation of others. In essence, all Pechorin's relationships with people are a kind of psychological experiments that interest the hero in their complexity, "for a while they entertain with luck. Such is the story with Bela, the story of the victory over Mary. Similar was the psychological “game” with Grushnitsky, whom Pechorin fools, declaring that Mary is not indifferent to him, in order to later prove his deplorable mistake. Pechorin argues that "ambition is nothing but a thirst for power, and happiness is just pompous pride." If A.S. Pushkin is considered to be the creator of the first realistic poetic novel about modernity, then, in my opinion, Lermontov is the author of the first socio-psychological novel in prose, his novel is distinguished by the depth of analysis of the psychological perception of the world, depicting his era, Lermontov subjects it to deep critical analysis, not succumbing to no illusions and seductions. Lermontov shows all the weakest sides of his generation: coldness of hearts, selfishness, futility of activity. The realism of A Hero of Our Time differs in many respects from the realism of Pushkin's novel. Pushing aside everyday elements, the life story of the heroes, Lermontov focuses on their inner world, revealing in detail the motives that prompted this or that hero to do something. The author depicts all sorts of overflows of feelings with such depth, penetration and detail, which the literature of his time did not yet know. Many considered Lermontov the predecessor of Leo Tolstoy, and I absolutely agree with this, it was from Lermontov that Tolstoy learned the techniques of revealing the inner world of characters, portraiture and speech style. Dostoevsky also proceeded from Lermontov's creative experience, but Lermontov's thoughts about the role of suffering in the spiritual life of a person, about the split consciousness, about the collapse of the individualism of a strong personality, turned in Dostoevsky into an image of painful tension and painful suffering of the heroes of his works. The rebellious nature of Pechorin refuses joys and peace of mind. This hero is always “asking for storms”. His nature is too rich in passions and thoughts, too free to be content with little and not demand great feelings, events, sensations from the world. Self-analysis is necessary for a modern person in order to correctly correlate his destiny and destiny with real life, in order to understand his place in this world. Lack of conviction is a real tragedy for the hero and his generation. The "Journal of Pechorin" reveals a lively, complex, rich, analytical work of the mind. This proves to us not only that the protagonist is a typical figure, but also that in Russia there is a youth who is tragically lonely, Pechorin considers himself a miserable descendant who wanders the earth without conviction. He says: "We are no longer capable of great sacrifices, either for the good of mankind, or even for our own happiness." The same idea is repeated by Lermontov in the poem “Duma”: We are rich, scarcely from the cradle, With the mistakes of the fathers and their late mind, And life already torments us, like a smooth path without a goal, Like a feast at a stranger’s holiday. Every truly Russian person becomes uneasy at the thought that M.Yu. Lermontov died early. Solving the moral problem of the purpose of life, the main character of his work, Grigory Pechorin, could not find an application for his abilities. “Why did I live? For what purpose was I born? But, it’s true, I had a high appointment, since I feel immense forces in my soul, ”he writes. In this uncertainty lie the origins of Pechorin's attitude towards the people around him. He is indifferent to their experiences, so he, without hesitation, distorts other people's destinies. Pushkin wrote about such young people: “Millions of two-legged creatures are the same name for them.” Using Pushkin's words, one can say about Pechorin that in his views on life "the age is reflected, and modern man is depicted quite correctly, with his immoral soul, selfish and dry." This is how Lermontov saw his generation.

The concept of art

Word " art" both in Russian and in many other languages ​​it is used in two senses:

• in narrow sense it is a specific form of practical-spiritual development of the world;
• in wide- the highest level of skill, skills, regardless of the way in which they are manifested (the art of a stove-maker, doctor, baker, etc.).

- a special subsystem of the spiritual sphere of society, which is a creative reproduction of reality in artistic images.

Initially, art was called a high degree of skill in any business. This meaning of the word is still present in the language when we talk about the art of a doctor or teacher, martial art or oratory. Later, the concept of "art" began to be increasingly used to describe a special activity aimed at reflecting and transforming the world in accordance with aesthetic standards, i.e. according to the laws of beauty. At the same time, the original meaning of the word has been preserved, since the highest skill is required to create something beautiful.

Subject The arts are the world and man in the totality of their relations with each other.

Form of Existence art - a work of art (poem, painting, play, film, etc.).

Art also uses special means for reproduction of reality: for literature it is a word, for music it is sound, for fine art it is color, for sculpture it is volume.

Target art is dual: for the creator it is artistic self-expression, for the viewer it is the enjoyment of beauty. In general, beauty is as closely connected with art as truth with science and goodness with morality.

Art is an important component of the spiritual culture of mankind, a form of knowledge and reflection of the reality surrounding a person. In terms of the potential for understanding and transforming reality, art is not inferior to science. However, the ways of understanding the world by science and art are different: if science uses strict and unambiguous concepts for this, then art -.

Art as an independent and as a branch of spiritual production grew out of the production of the material, was originally woven into it as an aesthetic, but purely utilitarian moment. an artist by nature, and he strives to bring beauty everywhere in one way or another. The aesthetic activity of a person is constantly manifested in everyday life, social life, and not only in art. going on aesthetic exploration of the world a public person.

Functions of art

Art performs a number public functions.

Functions of art can be summarized as follows:

• aesthetic function allows you to reproduce reality according to the laws of beauty, forms an aesthetic taste;
• social function manifested in the fact that art has an ideological impact on society, thereby transforming social reality;
• compensatory functions allows you to restore peace of mind, solve psychological problems, “escape” for a while from the gray everyday life, compensate for the lack of beauty and harmony in everyday life;
• hedonic function reflects the ability of art to bring pleasure to a person;
• cognitive function allows you to know reality and analyze it with the help of artistic images;
• predictive function reflects the ability of art to make predictions and predict the future;
• educational function manifested in the ability of works of art to shape a person's personality.

cognitive function

First of all, this cognitive function. Works of art are valuable sources of information about complex social processes.

Of course, not everyone in the surrounding world is interested in art, and if they are, then to a different degree, and the very approach of art to the object of its knowledge, the angle of its vision is very specific compared to other forms of social consciousness. The main object of knowledge in art has always been and remains. That is why art in general and, in particular, fiction is called human science.

educational function

Educational function - the ability to have an important impact on the ideological and moral development of a person, its self-improvement or fall.

And yet, cognitive and educational functions are not specific to art: other forms of social consciousness also perform these functions.

aesthetic function

The specific function of art, which makes it art in the true sense of the word, is its aesthetic function.

Perceiving and comprehending a work of art, we do not just assimilate its content (like the content of physics, biology, mathematics), but we pass this content through the heart, emotions, give sensually concrete images created by the artist an aesthetic assessment as beautiful or ugly, sublime or base , tragic or comic. Art forms in us the ability to give such aesthetic assessments, to distinguish the truly beautiful and sublime from all kinds of ersatz.

hedonic function

Cognitive, educational and aesthetic are merged in art together. Thanks to the aesthetic moment, we enjoy the content of a work of art, and it is in the process of enjoyment that we are enlightened and educated. In this regard, they talk about hedonistic(translated from Greek - pleasure) functions art.

For many centuries, in socio-philosophical and aesthetic literature, the dispute about the relationship between beauty in art and reality has continued. This reveals two main positions. According to one of them (in Russia it was supported by N. G. Chernyshevsky), the beautiful in life is always and in all respects higher than the beautiful in art. In this case, art appears as a copy of the typical characters and objects of reality itself and a surrogate for reality. Obviously, an alternative concept is preferable (G. V. F. Hegel, A. I. Herzen and others): the beautiful in art is higher than the beautiful in life, since the artist sees more accurately and deeper, feels stronger and brighter, and that is why he can inspire with his own the art of others. Otherwise (being a surrogate or even a duplicate), society would not need art.

works of art, being the substantive embodiment of human genius, become the most important spiritual and values ​​that are passed down from generation to generation, the property of the aesthetic society. Mastery of culture, aesthetic education is impossible without familiarization with art. The works of art of past centuries capture the spiritual world of thousands of generations, without mastering which a person cannot become a person in the true meaning of the word. Each person is a kind of bridge between the past and the future. He must master what the past generation left him, creatively comprehend his spiritual experience, understand his thoughts, feelings, joys and sufferings, ups and downs, and pass it all on to posterity. This is the only way history moves, and in this movement a huge army belongs to art, expressing the complexity and richness of the spiritual world of man.

Kinds of art

The primary form of art was a special syncretic(undivided) complex of creative activity. For primitive man, there was no separate music, or literature, or theater. Everything was merged together in a single ritual action. Later, separate types of art began to stand out from this syncretic action.

Kinds of art- these are historically established forms of artistic reflection of the world, using special means to build an image - sound, color, body movement, word, etc. Each type of art has its own special varieties - genera and genres, which together provide a variety of artistic attitudes to reality. Let us briefly consider the main types of art and some of their varieties.

Literature uses verbal and written means to build images. There are three main types of literature - drama, epic and lyrics, and numerous genres - tragedy, comedy, novel, story, poem, elegy, short story, essay, feuilleton, etc.

Music uses audio. Music is divided into vocal (intended for singing) and instrumental. Genres of music - opera, symphony, overture, suite, romance, sonata, etc.

Dance uses means of plastic movements to build images. Allocate ritual, folk, ballroom,

modern dances, ballet. Directions and styles of dance - waltz, tango, foxtrot, samba, polonaise, etc.

Painting displays reality on a plane by means of color. Genres of painting - portrait, still life, landscape, as well as everyday, animalistic (image of animals), historical genres.

Architecture forms a spatial environment in the form of structures and buildings for human life. It is divided into residential, public, landscape gardening, industrial, etc. There are also architectural styles - Gothic, Baroque, Rococo, Art Nouveau, Classicism, etc.

Sculpture creates works of art that have volume and three-dimensional shape. Sculpture is round (bust, statue) and relief (convex image). The size is divided into easel, decorative and monumental.

Arts and Crafts related to application needs. This includes art objects that can be used in everyday life - dishes, fabrics, tools, furniture, clothes, jewelry, etc.

Theatre organizes a special stage action through the play of actors. The theater can be dramatic, opera, puppet, etc.

The circus presents a spectacular and entertaining action with unusual, risky and funny numbers in a special arena. These are acrobatics, balancing act, gymnastics, horse riding, juggling, magic tricks, pantomime, clowning, animal training and so on.

Movie is the development of theatrical action based on modern technical audiovisual means. The types of cinematography include fiction, documentary films, animation. By genre, comedies, dramas, melodramas, adventure films, detectives, thrillers, etc. are distinguished.

Photo fixes documentary visual images with the help of technical means - optical and chemical or digital. The genres of photography correspond to the genres of painting.

Stage includes small forms of performing arts - dramaturgy, music, choreography, illusions, circus performances, original performances, etc.

Graphics, radio art, etc. can be added to the listed types of art.

In order to show the common features of different types of art and their differences, various grounds for their classification are proposed. So, there are types of art:

• by the number of means used - simple (painting, sculpture, poetry, music) and complex, or synthetic (ballet, theater, cinema);
• in terms of the ratio of works of art and reality - pictorial, depicting reality, copying it, (realistic painting, sculpture, photography), and expressive, where the artist's fantasy and imagination create a new reality (ornament, music);
• in relation to space and time - spatial (fine arts, sculpture, architecture), temporal (literature, music) and space-time (theatre, cinema);
• by the time of occurrence - traditional (poetry, dance, music) and new (photography, cinema, television, video), usually using rather complex technical means to build an image;
• according to the degree of applicability in everyday life - applied (arts and crafts) and fine (music, dance).

Each species, genus or genre reflects a particular side or facet of human life, but taken together, these components of art give a comprehensive artistic picture of the world.

The need for artistic creation or enjoyment of works of art increases along with the growth of a person's cultural level. Art becomes the more necessary, the further a person is separated from the animal state.