The most characteristic feature of all English reforms is gradualness. The reform of 1832, like all English reforms, cannot be called radical, as evidenced by its main provisions.

The electoral reform of 1832 abandoned corporate representation and moved to territorial representation of the population. Deputy seats began to be presented in approximate dependence on the number of people living in cities. The Representation of the People Act 1832 passed by the English Parliament contained the following clauses:

“I. That any of the towns listed under the letter “A” (56 in total) ceases to send a deputy or deputies to parliament from and after the end of the powers of this parliament.

II. The townships listed under the letter “B” (30 in total) are to send only one deputy each.

III. (The places named in the list under the letter “C” (22 in total) constitute the polling stations for sending two deputies to parliament).

IV. (The places named under the letter “D” in the list (20 in total) constitute the polling stations for sending one deputy to parliament).

V. (Four polling stations include neighboring districts).” Constitutions and legislative acts of the bourgeois states of the XVII-XIX centuries / Ed. P.N. Galanzy.-M.: State. ed. legal literature, 1957. p. 145.

The total number of seats in the House of Commons remained the same, but a redistribution was made: 56 so-called "rotten seats" were completely resolved by representation, for another 72 it was reduced and changed. Some significant cities were granted seats in the House of Commons anew, depending on the number of inhabitants. New electoral qualifications were introduced: reaching civil age, paying taxes for the poor. The original property qualification was brought into line with financial activity: henceforth, the owners of land or real estate in cities that generate an income of at least 10 pounds per year (200 shillings) had the right to elect.

Under the reform of 1832, a city elector was made who owned a house that brought in at least £10 a year. The tenant of the house was made an elector in the event that the rent reached 10 pounds sterling a year, that is, equal to the annual income of an average tenant.

“XIX. That any male person who has reached the age of majority, who is not subject to disqualification, and who owns by law or in equity any land or estate on the basis of a copyhold, or any other holding other than a freehold, for life or for a period of two or more generations, or within wider limits, with a net income of not less than ten pounds a year, less all annuities and fees not attributable to, or pertaining to, the relevant holding, - shall be entitled to vote in the election of the knight or knights of the county to any future parliament, speaking for the county, reading, localities, parts of the county in which the said lands and estates will be respectively located. Constitutions and legislative acts of the bourgeois states of the XVII-XIX centuries / Ed. P.N. Galanzy.-M.: State. ed. legal literature, 1957. pp. 146-147.

For the first time, suffrage was also granted to holders of land-copyholders (tenants), but with a higher property qualification - 50 pounds. Thus, the owner was authorized to rule England. The number of voters amounted to 376 thousand people (instead of the previous 247 thousand). The right to vote was vested in 1/32 of the population (376 thousand to 12 million).

The reform made a necessary fight for the popular vote, which it had neglected before. Both parties - both Tories and Whigs - quickly understood this. They discarded their former nicknames and acquired "decent names." The Tories became "conservatives" and the Whigs became "liberals." These names they took in Spain.

As a result of the reform, the number of voters increased one and a half times, but still a significant part of entrepreneurs, employees, intellectuals, as well as the working class (which became a prominent social country after the industrial revolution) were deprived of parliamentary representation and influence on politics. However, whoever won, the dominance of large landownership and capital was ensured. The electoral reform primarily protected the interests of the owners. But the struggle for universal suffrage continued, 376 thousand could not fully speak for 12 million. Social contradictions did not disappear on this. New changes, new reforms were brewing.

The electoral reform of 1867 became more radical. Its implementation was significantly influenced by the Chartist movement of 1830-1840. In the programs and charters of which an important place was occupied by the demand for universal male suffrage. The reform included two parts: a new distribution of seats in parliament and an electoral qualification. The first little that changed. In contrast to the reform of 1832, the part dealing with the rights to participate in elections was spelled out in more detail.

In the course of the reform, another 38 townships were deprived of representation and, on the contrary, quotas for large cities were increased. In the counties, electoral districts were introduced, which enjoyed the right to their own quota of deputy seats.

“17. From and after the termination of the powers of this Parliament, no city having a population of less than ten thousand inhabitants at the census of one thousand eight hundred and sixty-one, of those cities listed in list "A" (total 38) appended to this Act, shall send to parliament of more than one member.

18. From and after the end of the present Parliament, the cities of Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Leeds shall respectively send three MPs each.” Constitutions and legislative acts of the bourgeois states of the XVII-XIX centuries / Ed. P.N. Galanzy.-M.: State. ed. legal literature, 1957. p. 153.

The expansion of qualifications was essential. The "house" was still taken as the basis. This time, it was not only those who paid £10 in rent that got the right to vote. If the house was taxed for the benefit of the poor (and there were many such houses), all those tenants of small apartments who contributed it got the right to vote.

The qualification was reduced to 5 pounds for owners and tenants of land. Until 1867, they paid the tax through the householder, and only he was considered a "taxpayer". The residence qualifications (residence for a year) and the need to pay a tax on the poor have been preserved. In university districts, suffrage was granted to those with the title (“master”).

“3. Every male from the year 1868 onwards will be eligible to register as an elector and after registration to participate in elections ... if he satisfies the following requirements:

1) be an adult and not subject to loss of rights;

3) has been subjected during the said period as a permanent occupant of the premises he occupies ... to the taxation of all dues (if any) in favor of the poor due from the premises concerned ...

4) paid in good faith on the twentieth day of July or before that in the same year, on an equal basis with other permanent residents, the amount required from him in pounds sterling for all dues for the poor, payable from the said premises ... ”Reader on the history of the state and the law of foreign countries / Under ed. Z. M. Chernilovsky.-M.: Jurid. lit., 1984. pp. 170-171.

It was this provision, introduced by the Liberals and adopted by the Conservative government, that led to the fact that tenants of small apartments who pay the tax on the poor also received the right to vote. The ten-pound barrier no longer existed for them, which resulted in a significant increase in the number of voters.

The electoral reform of 1867 affected county voters as well. As with the voters from the cities, the circle of voters also increased significantly, a number of restrictions were abolished or reduced.

“1) is of legal age and is not subject to disqualification; owns by law or equity any lands as a freehold, copyhold or other holding for life or for a period of two or more generations or more, with a net income of not less than five pounds a year ... or is entitled to as ... a tenant ... of any lands or estates constituting a freehold or other holding ... for an originally fixed term of not less than sixty years ... and with a net income of not less than five pounds a year ... "Constitutions and Legislations of Bourgeois States XVII- XIX century / Ed. P.N. Galanzy.-M.: State. ed. legal literature, 1957. pp. 152-153.

The reform elevated to this rank everyone who paid the tax, and thereby expanded the circle of voters. The number of voters in the counties has grown by half, in the cities by 200%. From now on, not only landowners received the right of representation in social terms. The new million voters were made up of artisans, the petty bourgeoisie, and skilled workers.

In 1872, the secret ballot was introduced in England. In connection with the approval of the principle of compulsory primary education in the country, a system was formed for the transition to a system of secret voting (ballots), which, of course, was more in line with the idea of ​​free democracy. Although the use of ballots and the secrecy of voting at the same time opened the way for big falsifications that came to the place of open pressure on voters. The introduction of secret voting had a positive effect on the formation of labor movements that were gaining strength.

The third electoral reform was carried out in 1884-1885. Gradually the old fears of the mass voter disappeared. It turned out that the mere extension of the electoral right, while maintaining monopolies in the hands of the ruling parties on the nomination of candidates and on their smuggle (which requires a lot of money) does not threaten to change the composition of parliament.

Under the reform, suffrage was extended equally to residents of counties and cities. The Representation of the People Act 1884 read as follows:

“There will be uniform suffrage throughout the United Kingdom for landlords and tenants in all counties and cities.” Reader on the history of the state and law of foreign countries / Ed. Z. M. Chernilovsky.-M.: Jurid. lit., 1984. p. 172.

Also in 1884, the final advance was made towards the recognition of universal male suffrage.

"5. Every man who owns in a county or city ... land or premises yielding an annual income of at least £10, may be registered, vote in elections in such county or city ...

6. A voter who owns property in the city cannot vote in the county. Reader on the history of the state and the law of foreign countries / Ed. Z. M. Chernilovsky.-M.: Jurid. lit., 1984. p. 173.

The right to vote for deputies was granted to all owners of land or other real estate (with an income from them of at least £10) and to almost all tenants (remaining restrictions concerned the possibility of official subordination or the use of offices for housing). The equalization of the rights of the population of cities and counties was completed by improvements in the electoral system in 1885. Electoral districts were formed with representation strictly proportional to the population: a typical district - from 15 to 65 thousand inhabitants - sent two deputies, a large one - over 65 thousand inhabitants - three. At the same time, the principle of "double voting" was partially limited: a voter who owns property in the city could not vote in the counties. The principle was preserved only for universities.

The deputies from the district who won the elections were now determined according to the majoritarian system: the mandates were given to candidates who received a relative majority of votes, even if this majority was far from the majority of voters in general and even from the number of those participating in the vote.

Essential in the new reform - in addition to expanding voting rights in the counties - was the introduction of electoral districts. Each of them elected one deputy. The winner was the candidate who received the relative majority of the votes. Parliament was elected for 7 years. Industrial cities received a new increase in the number of mandates. The bourgeois deputies already make up a considerable mass of the members of the House of Commons. The class compromise between the nobility and the bourgeoisie remained in force. However, the predominant position passed to the bourgeoisie.

The main trends in the development of suffrage in England in the 19th century were an increasing increase in the number of persons receiving the right to vote. Various qualifications gradually decreased, more and more people got the opportunity to influence the political life of the country, which to a certain extent reduced class tension in society. The struggle for votes contributed to the emergence of new ideas, concepts for the development of the state. Wrong decisions became a weapon for their opponents in the struggle for votes. The authorities gradually began to become under the control of society, bore responsibility to it. All this had a positive effect on the further development of England.

Suffrage: the bulk of the deputies of the lower house (467 out of 658) were "chosen" by small towns and villages - small towns ("rotten"- old, long abandoned villages; "Pocket" belonged to large landowners). Voting is open, voters were told in advance who they should vote for, and were punished with eviction for disobedience. On average, on one place had to 12 voters and by 2 deputies. The city of London with its half a million population (end of the 18th century) sent 4 deputies. Meanwhile, new towns sprang up in England due to the industrial revolution of the 18th century. Cities are the center of the bourgeoisie. But precisely cities either did not elect at all, or elected such a number of deputies that in no way corresponded to the population. A natural consequence of this contradiction was the requirement electoral reform. The bourgeoisie did not encroach on the House of Lords. But she wanted to see the lower house as bourgeois. In the struggle for reform, the bourgeoisie turned to the help of the workers. She promised them laws that would give cheap grain, and the workers joined the fight (they promised to repeal the Corn Laws, which forbade the importation of cheap grain from abroad, so that the landlords could sell their grain at a high price).

1816- mass manifestation in favor of the reform; unions of various kinds arose. Wishing to put an end to the resistance of the lords, bourgeois organizations appealed to withdraw deposits from banks. The Lords have surrendered.

1832 - People's Government Act proposed by the government Whigs, became the law; its highlights:

• more than 50 places - from those that are "rotten" - were completely deprived of representation in parliament;
• another 30 townships had to be content with a reduction in the number of deputies;
• the vacated 143 seats were given: 66 to "large densely populated and wealthy cities", 65 to the counties, the rest to Scotland, Ireland, Wells;
• reduced spending on election campaigns;
• The right to vote was "any adult male person who is not subject to disenfranchisement", renting land or estates for a period of not less than 60 years, with a net income of not less than 10 pounds a year.
• in order to be included in the electoral rolls, one had to live within the next 60 calendar months either in the place itself or within 7 miles of the place.

Thus, he was authorized to rule England owner.

The reform made it necessary to fight for the votes of the electorate. Tories and Whigs quickly realized this, and renamed their parties: Tories - "conservatives"("We do not swear against reforms, but in principle for everything to remain as before"), Whigs - "liberals"(encourage progress).

19th century- a stubborn struggle for universal suffrage, an annual parliament, so that every worthy working person can become a deputy. 1850 - 60s in the English working class, a new social element is gaining importance - labor aristocracy(inclined to compromise with the ruling classes of England on the basis of partial concessions on their part). The struggle for this new elector spurred conservatives and liberals to a new parliamentary reform. Both parties wanted the reform to be the result of her initiative.

1867 - People's Government Act split into two parts:

• new distribution of seats in parliament: the lion's share of the mandates taken from the "rotten" townships went to the counties (30 out of 53). The big cities still sent an insignificant number of deputies - 34 out of 560;
• voting center: expansion of the qualification - the right to vote was received not only by those who paid 10 pounds of rent. If the house was taxed for the benefit of the poor (and there were many such houses), all those tenants of small apartments who contributed it got the right to vote. Until 1867, they paid the tax through the householder, and only he was considered a "taxpayer." The reform raised to this rank everyone who paid the tax and thereby expanded the circle of voters.

1884 - Act of Representation of the People:

• every male (landlord and tenant) has the right to vote if the premises are located in the county of England and Scotland or the county and cities of Ireland;
• every man who owns land or premises in a county or city (with an income of at least £10) may register as an elector and vote;
• a voter who owns property in a city cannot vote in a county.

1885 - Act of redistribution of seats: in the counties - introduction of constituencies, each electing one Member of Parliament. By system the relative majority if, for example, with 1000 votes for three candidates, the votes were divided so that one received 400 and the other two received 300 votes, the one for whom 400 voted was considered elected. The fact that the elected did not have a majority of voters behind him was not taken into account . It was believed, however, that a deputy should protect the interests not only of those who elected him, but of the entire constituency as a whole.

Parliament was elected for 7 years. The class compromise between the nobility and the bourgeoisie remained in force, but the predominant position passed to the bourgeoisie.

1871 Trade Unions Act- trade unions of workers - trade unions- achieve legal existence (trade union - such a temporary or permanent coalition to regulate relations between workers and owners, relations between workers among themselves). 1875- Trade unions persuaded parliament to abolish prison sentences for breach of contract of employment. According to the old law (“master and employee”), a worker who left the place before the deadline was subject to imprisonment for 3 months. Campaigning aimed at raising salaries became possible; criminal punishment for organizing strikes was abolished; receives recognition of "freedom of conscience", that is, the right to profess any religion or not to profess any; to one degree or another, free expression of opinion was recognized - freedom of speech.

The absence of a system of administrative penalties and fines - in all cases, the police turned to the court for assistance. Meetings were not prohibited and did not require prior permission; however, local authorities had the right to disperse if they found that the rally was turning into a "noisy gathering."

Chapter 25

In the first half of the XIX century. in England, the need for electoral reforms was urgently needed, since from the medieval period active suffrage belonged only to freeholders with an income of forty shillings a year, i.e. a few percent of the population (Table 52).

Specific features of English suffrage there was a lack of clearly defined constituencies, the frequency of elections, i.e. English suffrage remained essentially medieval. The bulk of the deputies of the lower house of Parliament were nominated from small towns and villages, which in ancient times, for some reason, received the corresponding privileges.

Some of these places were considered "rotten", because they were long abandoned by the inhabitants, or there were several dozen inhabitants living there. Many of these places belonged to the "pocket", ie. they were owned by a large landowner. Using the rules of open voting, property owners simply ordered voters who to vote for, otherwise there was a punishment. So in the same composition of the lower house, 428 deputies were appointed in advance (Table 53).

The parliament of the constitutional monarchy inherited the historical principles of suffrage, which were established in the period of the estate monarchy. In essence, the right to send deputies to the House of Commons belonged not to citizens, but to their corporations - territorial (rural), cities, universities. Such archaic suffrage led to significant inequality even between those categories of citizens who were granted this right at all.

This discrepancy was seen as an important flaw in the electoral system as early as the 17th century.

“Following custom when it no longer makes sense ... just the name of a city of which nothing remains but ruins, where there are almost no buildings except a sheepfold, and there are no inhabitants except a shepherd, and this city sends as many representatives to a great assembly of legislators, like a whole county, densely populated and possessing great wealth, ”wrote John Locke in Two Treatises on Government, vol. 2, sec. 157.

At the end of the XVII - beginning of the XIX century. suffrage was still regulated by the law of 1414. The right to send a representative to the House of Commons was held by free land holders (knights) with an income of at least 40 shillings a year (confirmed in 1746) and living in the county at the time of promulgation of the decree (writ) on elections. Similar requirements applied to urban voters. But cities used the right to send deputies only as they were granted the status of bourg (borough) from the crown. The electoral rolls were compiled by sheriffs, who were threatened by the law with fines and a year in prison for possible abuses.

Anecdotal, but real was the situation with the towns of Gaton and Old Sarum, in each of which one voter sent two deputies. However, such simplicity was often enough for the full composition of the Chamber: at the end of the 18th century. there were often newspaper announcements of an invitation to become a deputy for 2 thousand pounds (joining the House of Commons, among other things, required the payment of a significant contribution - from 2 to 5 thousand pounds, besides, the deputies did not receive a salary; this made them even more dependent on money bag of landlords or corporations).

The government announced the need for a reform of the suffrage as early as 1782. However, only fifty years later, under the pressure of circumstances and in the interests of the wider strata of the propertied population of the kingdom, the reform was carried out (Table 54).

AT 1832 adopted by the Whigs Act of Representation of the People , according to which small electoral districts "rotten boroughs", with a population of less than two thousand people, were deprived of representation in the House of Commons of the British Parliament. There were more than 50 such "rotten places". Approximately 30 small towns with a population of less than four thousand people had their quotas of representation in parliament reduced from two deputies to one. After the reform, another part of the cities received two instead of four deputy mandates. 143 seats were vacated and redistributed between the new electoral districts.

In addition, in Act of 1832 were formulated general qualification restrictions for voters in the UK. It was allowed to participate in elections to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the country all the male population who had reached the age of 21, had a residency requirement of six months, paid a tax on the poor and had 10 pounds sterling of income from land in the county or from real estate in the city. And although the electoral corps doubled under the reform, it still made up only an insignificant part of the population (about 5%). In addition, the electoral reform of 1832 abandoned the representation of corporations and moved to the territorial representation of the population living in cities. The total number of seats in the House of Commons remained the same, but a redistribution was made: 56 "rotten seats" were completely deprived of representation, for another 72 were reduced or changed.

Some significant cities were given seats in the House of Commons anew, depending on the number of inhabitants. New electoral qualifications were introduced: reaching civil age, paying taxes for the poor. The original property qualification was brought into line with financial activity: henceforth, the owners of land or real estate in cities that generate an income of at least 10 pounds per year (200 shillings) had the right to elect. For the first time, suffrage was also granted to holders of land - copyholders (tenants), but with a higher property qualification - - 50 feet. As a result of the reform, the number of voters increased one and a half times, but all the same, a significant part of entrepreneurs, employees, intellectuals, as well as the working class (which became the land social force of the country after the industrial revolution) were deprived of parliamentary representation and influence on politics.

became more radical electoral reform of 1862 It was significantly influenced by the Chartist movement of 1830-1840. in whose programs and charters an important place was occupied by the demand for universal male suffrage. In the course of the reform, another 38 townships were deprived of representation and, on the contrary, quotas for large cities were increased. In the counties, electoral districts were introduced, which enjoyed the right to their own quota of deputy seats. The property qualification was reduced to 5 feet for owners or tenants of land, and the right to vote was granted to owners or tenants of residential buildings, tenants of apartments of a certain property quality. Preserved qualifications settled (residence during the year) and the need to pay taxes for the poor. However, in general, the number of voters was significantly increased. From now on, not only landowners, but also entrepreneurs, prosperous employees, intellectuals, workers, city merchants received the right of representation from now on. In university districts, suffrage was granted to those who had academic titles (“master”).

The next UK suffrage reform took place in 1867 d. She continued to redistribute parliamentary seats in favor of the large industrial centers of England (Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Manchester, etc.), with all tenants of city apartments paying at least £10 per year in rent were given access to the electoral process . The result of this reform was a twofold increase in the urban electorate (Table 55).

Table 55

The result of electoral reforms in Great Britain in the XIX century. was the acceptance Representation of the People Act 1884 and Redistribution Act of 1885 d. These normative acts summed up the changes made in the electoral law of the country. To participate in the electoral procedure, men over 21 years of age who had the qualifications of homeowners or tenants were admitted. In addition, those men who owned land or premises in the county or city, which brought an annual income of at least 10 pounds sterling, were eligible to vote. In the Act of 1884 (Article 6), an attempt was made for the first time to abolish the so-called "double vote", when the British voter could vote twice: at the place of permanent residence and at the location of his landed property. In the Act of 1885, a new rule was finally established on the division of electoral districts and on the quotas of representation in them.

As a result of the electoral reform of 1884, final progress was made towards the recognition of universal male suffrage. The right to vote for deputies was granted to all owners of land or other real estate (with an income of at least 10 feet from them) and to virtually all tenants (remaining restrictions related to the possibility of official subordination or the use of offices for housing). Under the reform, suffrage was extended equally to the inhabitants of the counties and cities.

The equalization of the rights of the population of cities and counties was completed by improvements in the electoral system in 1885. Electoral districts were formed with representation strictly proportional to the population: a typical district - from 15 to 65 thousand inhabitants - - sent two deputies, a large one - - over 65 thousand - - three. At the same time, the principle of “double agreement” (which existed earlier and is very indicative) was partially limited: a voter who owns property in the city could not vote in the counties. The principle was preserved only for universities.

In the first half of the XIX century. in England, the need for electoral reforms was urgently needed, since from the medieval period active suffrage belonged only to freeholders with an income of forty shillings a year, i.e. a few percent of the population (Table 52).

Specific features of English suffrage there was a lack of clearly defined constituencies, the frequency of elections, i.e. English suffrage remained essentially medieval. The bulk of the deputies of the lower house of Parliament were nominated from small towns and villages, which in ancient times, for some reason, received the corresponding privileges.

Some of these places were considered "rotten", because they were long abandoned by the inhabitants, or there were several dozen inhabitants living there. Many of these places belonged to the "pocket", ie. they were owned by a large landowner. Using the rules of open voting, property owners simply ordered voters who to vote for, otherwise there was a punishment. So in the same composition of the lower house, 428 deputies were appointed in advance (Table 53).

The parliament of the constitutional monarchy inherited the historical principles of suffrage, which were established in the period of the estate monarchy. In essence, the right to send deputies to the House of Commons belonged not to citizens, but to their corporations - territorial (rural), cities, universities. Such archaic suffrage led to significant inequality even between those categories of citizens who were granted this right at all.

This discrepancy was seen as an important flaw in the electoral system as early as the 17th century.

“Following custom when it no longer makes sense ... just the name of a city of which nothing remains but ruins, where there are almost no buildings except a sheepfold, and there are no inhabitants except a shepherd, and this city sends as many representatives to a great assembly of legislators, like a whole county, densely populated and possessing great wealth, ”wrote John Locke in Two Treatises on Government, vol. 2, sec. 157.

At the end of the XVII - beginning of the XIX century. suffrage was still regulated by the law of 1414. The right to send a representative to the House of Commons was held by free land holders (knights) with an income of at least 40 shillings a year (confirmed in 1746) and living in the county at the time of promulgation of the decree (writ) on elections. Similar requirements applied to urban voters. But cities used the right to send deputies only as they were granted the status of bourg (borough) from the crown. The electoral rolls were compiled by sheriffs, who were threatened by the law with fines and a year in prison for possible abuses.

Anecdotal, but real was the situation with the towns of Gaton and Old Sarum, in each of which one voter sent two deputies. However, such simplicity was often enough for the full composition of the Chamber: at the end of the 18th century. there were often newspaper announcements of an invitation to become a deputy for 2 thousand pounds (joining the House of Commons, in addition, required the payment of a significant contribution - from 2 to 5 thousand pounds, besides, the deputies did not receive a salary; this made them even more dependent on monetary bag of landlords or corporations).

The government announced the need for a reform of the suffrage as early as 1782. However, only fifty years later, under the pressure of circumstances and in the interests of the wider strata of the propertied population of the kingdom, the reform was carried out (Table 54).

AT 1832 adopted by the Whigs Act of Representation of the People , according to which small electoral districts "rotten boroughs", with a population of less than two thousand people, were deprived of representation in the House of Commons of the British Parliament. There were more than 50 such "rotten places". Approximately 30 small towns with a population of less than four thousand people had their quotas of representation in parliament reduced from two deputies to one. After the reform, another part of the cities received two instead of four deputy mandates. 143 seats were vacated and redistributed between the new electoral districts.

In addition, in Act of 1832 were formulated general qualification restrictions for voters in the UK. It was allowed to participate in elections to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the country all the male population who had reached the age of 21, had a residency requirement of six months, paid a tax on the poor and had 10 pounds sterling of income from land in the county or from real estate in the city. And although the electoral corps doubled under the reform, it still made up only an insignificant part of the population (about 5%). In addition, the electoral reform of 1832 abandoned the representation of corporations and moved to the territorial representation of the population living in cities. The total number of seats in the House of Commons remained the same, but a redistribution was made: 56 "rotten seats" were completely deprived of representation, for another 72 were reduced or changed.

Some significant cities were given seats in the House of Commons anew, depending on the number of inhabitants. New electoral qualifications were introduced: reaching civil age, paying taxes for the poor. The original property qualification was brought into line with financial activity: henceforth, the owners of land or real estate in cities that generate an income of at least 10 pounds per year (200 shillings) had the right to elect. For the first time, suffrage was also granted to holders of land - copyholders (tenants), but with a higher property qualification - 50 feet. As a result of the reform, the number of voters increased one and a half times, but all the same, a significant part of entrepreneurs, employees, intellectuals, as well as the working class (which became the land social force of the country after the industrial revolution) were deprived of parliamentary representation and influence on politics.

became more radical electoral reform of 1862 It was significantly influenced by the Chartist movement of 1830-1840. in whose programs and charters an important place was occupied by the demand for universal male suffrage. In the course of the reform, another 38 townships were deprived of representation and, on the contrary, quotas for large cities were increased. In the counties, electoral districts were introduced, which enjoyed the right to their own quota of deputy seats.

The property qualification was reduced to 5 feet for owners or tenants of land, and the right to vote was granted to owners or tenants of residential buildings, tenants of apartments of a certain property quality. Preserved qualifications settled (residence during the year) and the need to pay taxes for the poor. However, in general, the number of voters was significantly increased. From now on, not only landowners, but also entrepreneurs, prosperous employees, intellectuals, workers, city merchants received the right of representation from now on. In university districts, suffrage was granted to those who had academic titles (“master”).

The next UK suffrage reform took place in 1867 d. She continued to redistribute parliamentary seats in favor of the large industrial centers of England (Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Manchester, etc.), with all tenants of city apartments paying at least £10 per year in rent were given access to the electoral process . The result of this reform was a twofold increase in the urban electorate (Table 55).

Table 55

The result of electoral reforms in Great Britain in the XIX century. was the acceptance Representation of the People Act 1884 and Redistribution Act of 1885 d. These normative acts summed up the changes made in the electoral law of the country. To participate in the electoral procedure, men over 21 years of age who had the qualifications of homeowners or tenants were admitted. In addition, those men who owned land or premises in the county or city, which brought an annual income of at least 10 pounds sterling, were eligible to vote. In the Act of 1884 (Article 6), an attempt was made for the first time to abolish the so-called "double vote", when the British voter could vote twice: at the place of permanent residence and at the location of his landed property. In the Act of 1885, a new rule was finally established on the division of electoral districts and on the quotas of representation in them.

As a result of the electoral reform of 1884, final progress was made towards the recognition of universal male suffrage. The right to vote for deputies was granted to all owners of land or other real estate (with an income of at least 10 feet from them) and to virtually all tenants (remaining restrictions related to the possibility of official subordination or the use of offices for housing). Under the reform, suffrage was extended equally to the inhabitants of the counties and cities.

The equalization of the rights of the population of cities and counties was completed by improvements in the electoral system in 1885. Electoral districts were formed with representation strictly proportional to the population: a typical district - from 15 to 65 thousand inhabitants - sent two deputies, a large one - over 65 thousand - three. At the same time, the principle of “double agreement” (which existed earlier and is very indicative) was partially limited: a voter who owns property in the city could not vote in the counties. The principle was preserved only for universities.

The deputies from the district who won the elections were now determined according to the majoritarian system: the mandates were given to candidates who received a relative majority of votes, even if this majority was far from the majority of voters in general and even from the number of those who participated in the vote. In 1872, in connection with the approval of the principle of compulsory primary education in the country, an opportunity arose for a transition to a system of secret voting (by ballots), which, of course, was more in line with the idea of ​​free democracy. Prior to this, voting was open and written. Although the use of ballots and the secrecy of voting at the same time opened the way for big falsifications that came to the place of open pressure on voters.

Almost two hundred years after the Stuart Restoration in 1660 until the first half of the 19th century. in England there were no noticeable democratic movements with an independent platform and political demands. This was connected both with the slow pace of democratic transformations in the rule of law English state, and the accelerated pace of long overdue reforms throughout the 19th century.

The construction of a parliamentary monarchy in England would have been impossible without its skeleton, which was the principle of independence, both structural and financial, of parliament and the principle of its supremacy in the political system.

The reform of the electoral law and, above all, the system of parliamentary elections took place in several stages (1832, 1867, 1884, 1885, 1911, 1918, 1928) and eventually led to the following results: a gradual reduction and then abolition of property and educational qualifications in parliamentary elections ; the introduction of secret ballots; transition to the cutting of uniform electoral districts; tougher penalties for crimes against the electoral system.

General characteristics of the medieval electoral system. The bulk of the deputies of the House of Commons (467 out of 658) were "chosen" by residents of small towns and villages - "parliamentary towns", who at different times and for various reasons received this privilege. There were two categories of such places: 1) "rotten places" - old, long abandoned and deserted villages and rural settlements, in which there could sometimes be only a few dozen inhabitants; 2) "pocket towns" - villages and small towns owned by large landlords, who, taking advantage of the fact that voting in the elections was open, indicated to voters in advance who they should vote for, and punished disobedience with eviction.

Another distinctive feature of the medieval electoral system in England was the discrepancy between the number of electors and the number of deputies they elected in their districts. So, in some towns there were no more than 3-4 voters, while in others the right to vote belonged only to the mayor and his advisers. On average, there were 12 voters and 2 deputies per seat, while, for example, 500 thousand inhabitants of London sent only 4 deputies to parliament, and 165 thousand inhabitants of Cornwell county - only 44 deputies. In addition, deputy seats were often the subject of open bargaining, and they were bought for a very significant sum of £2,000.

Only persons over the age of 30 with an income of at least £2 could vote and be elected. per year and owning real estate. In addition to the qualifications, the open voting and the dominance of the rural aristocracy in parliament, and not the urban bourgeois with their liberal views, interfered with the democratic nature of the elections (398 deputies from the counties accounted for 90 deputies elected in the cities).

The first steps towards the transformation of medieval suffrage were taken in the middle. 17th century Thus, in accordance with the provisions of the “Instruments of Government” of 1653, O. Cromwell carried out in essence the first parliamentary reform in England. The number of seats in the House of Commons has changed (from 488 to 460); the share of deputies from rapidly growing cities increased markedly due to the reduction of rural delegates; the local Scottish and Irish Parliaments were abolished, and the English Parliament for the first time became all-British (400 deputies were elected in England and Wales, 30 each in Scotland and Ireland). The creation of a single national legislative body instead of the three former ones was a completely progressive step in the conditions of breaking feudal and regional limitations. Traditionally, O. Cromwell is accused of setting a high property qualification for parliamentary elections (200 pounds of annual income). But in fact, behind such a high figure was an adjustment for the depreciation of money inherent in revolutions and civil wars (inflation). Cromwell, in fact, restored the qualification that existed on the eve of the revolution, and thus removed from participation in the elections all low- and medium-paid subjects. In addition, the constitution of 1653 no longer spoke of a land qualification and all the British who fought for "God's cause" were given voting rights. The Lord Protector simply could not leave the iron-sided veterans, to whom he owed a lot, politically disenfranchised.

During the Restoration of the Stuarts and during the reign of Charles II, instead of the Cromwellian suffrage, the archaic medieval system was again introduced with its cumbersomeness, land qualification, the dominance of the clergy and secular aristocracy in parliament. The regular annual re-elections of the House of Commons, introduced by the constitution of 1653, ceased. During the 25-year reign of Charles II, parliamentary elections took place only twice - in 1661 and 1679, and the first of these parliaments, nicknamed "cavalier" (the king's supporters received the majority of seats in it ), worked for a long 17 years. In addition, there was a restoration of parliaments in Scotland and Ireland.

Then in the Bill of Rights of 1689 and the Act of Dispensation of 1701, as well as in the acts of 1696 and 1711 clarifying them. in England, a strictly limited monarchy was established with nominal royal power, with the supremacy of parliament, which began to be called "omnipotent", and the government responsible to it. The Bill of Rights legitimized such a key democratic freedom as the freedom of parliamentary debate. It was forbidden to persecute the British for any petitions and complaints addressed to members of parliament or to the monarch.

At the beginning of the XIX century. the growth of new cities, the strengthening of influence on the policy of the industrial and commercial and financial estates, as well as the reform activity of the Whig party, brought the long-awaited electoral reform closer, which was carried out in three stages: 1832, 1867 and 1884-1885.

In general, the electoral reforms of the 19th century in England were carried out in two main directions: 1) the redistribution of constituencies by depriving certain "rotten places" of representation and reducing the quota for other fictitious constituencies; 2) expanding the circle of subjects of electoral law, including by changing or abolishing electoral qualifications.

Representation of the People Act 1832 In the preamble of this Act, the main goals of the first stage of the electoral reform were listed: 1) depriving the majority of minor towns of the right to send deputies to parliament; 2) granting such a privilege to large and densely populated cities; 3) an increase in the number of knights (knights-nobles) sent to parliament from the counties; 4) extension of the right to participate in elections to many subjects of His Majesty; 5) reduction of expenses for election campaigns.

In Art. I - IV of the Act of 1832 fixed the redistribution of electoral districts on the basis of a new gradation of "parliamentary seats" depending on the population (for example, list "A" - less than 2 thousand inhabitants, list "B" - 4 thousand inhabitants, etc.). d.). At the same time, "towns" from list "A" (56 in total) were deprived of the right to send deputies, from lists "B" (30) and "D" (20) they retained the right to send only one deputy.

In Art. XVIII - XXVII of the Act of 1832, separate electoral qualifications were restrained, which gave in aggregate the right to participate in parliamentary elections: gender and age qualification (men from 21 years old), residence qualification (6 months), property qualification (annual income of at least £10 .), a qualification in the form of paying a tax on the poor, as well as a mandatory requirement to be included in the voter lists. In county constituencies, in order to be included in the annually compiled electoral rolls, it was required within 6 months to actually own leased land, freehold, copyhold, or receive rent from the land. An important condition was also that the freehold or other holding was used for at least 60 years and the net annual income of the holder was at least £10, and for a short-term tenant (rent for 5, 10, 30 years) - at least £50 .st. In the electoral districts of cities and "towns", in order to be included in the annually compiled lists of voters, it was required to have possession for 12 months within the city of real estate on the right of ownership or lease, generating an income of at least £10. It was also necessary to live within the city or town for 6 months before being included in the voter lists.

Despite all these transformations and attempts to expand the electorate, as a result of the reform of 1832, only 1/22 of the population of England (376 thousand out of 12 million subjects) received the right to vote.

Representation of the People Act 1867 This Act, along with the next redistribution of deputy seats (all "towns" with a population of less than 10 thousand inhabitants were deprived of the opportunity to elect parliamentarians), provided for a further expansion of the electoral corps, extending the right to vote in cities to tenants (tenants) of apartments, if the cost of hiring a year without furnishing was at least £10. The conditions for obtaining the right to vote by the owners of separate housing (buildings) were the residence requirement for at least 12 months, the payment of local taxes and fees for the poor. All this again more than doubled the number of voters in the cities. In addition, in the counties, the property qualification for all owners of land or estates was reduced to £5. net annual income.

In connection with the introduction of voter registration procedures, as well as secret voting in 1872, which required the use of new methods of influencing voters, party organizations arose outside Parliament "to promote registration." They helped voters put their names on the electoral lists, represented their interests in court, and eventually began to campaign.

Representation of the People Act 1884 Gladstone's liberal cabinet passed its third electoral reform. In February 1884, the Prime Minister introduced a bill to the House of Commons, which was passed by an overwhelming majority. However, the House of Lords rejected this bill under the pretext that the Cabinet of Ministers should inform Parliament of its plans for the allocation of constituencies. The Conservatives feared that the reform would be carried out solely in the interests of the Whigs. Both parties wanted to conduct it in such a way as to be in the most advantageous position.

But in the extraordinary parliamentary elections of 1884, the Liberal Party, skillfully using popular indignation at the obstruction of the electoral bill by the House of Lords, won. Gladstone's bill was resubmitted to Parliament. Queen Victoria decisively intervened in inter-party strife, who was alarmed by the fact that a powerful movement was beginning in the country to abolish the House of Lords. At the Queen's suggestion, a meeting was held between Gladstone and the Tory leader, Lord Salisbury, during which the main differences were settled. After this, the Reform Bill passed through Parliament without much difficulty, and in December 1884 became law.

As a result of the reforms of 1884, the number of voters reached 5 million inhabitants. The opportunity to vote in the counties was granted to persons who rented unfurnished apartments for a fee of at least £10. in year. In general, after the third stage of the electoral reform, the following categories of persons received the right to vote in parliamentary elections:

1) all those who, within 12 months prior to registration as voters, have owned property that has generated an annual income of £10, provided that they have lived in the constituency for 6 months and paid all taxes;

2) tenants or owners of residential buildings who have paid the tax on the poor;

4) tenants who paid for the use of housing at least 10 f.st. and who lived for at least 12 months before registering as voters;

5) privileged citizens with the right to vote, based on ancient statutes and royal charters. They had the additional privilege of "plurality of voices", i.e. during elections, they could vote in all places where there was property that provided them with an electoral qualification. In general, about 1/10 of the inhabitants of England had more than one vote in parliamentary elections. In addition, it was possible to combine voting in a university district if the voter graduated from university and paid a special contribution annually, along with voting in a place where he had a general electoral qualification.

An analysis of the electoral law of 1884 shows that women, men under the age of 21, as well as persons who received assistance from the parish for 12 months, and subjects who did not meet the residence requirement, still did not have the right to vote.

The electoral system of England was built as a majoritarian system of relative majority. In 1884, the experiment with the "triangular proportional system" of elections was discontinued. The majoritarian system supported the existence of a two-party system in the country, corresponded to the trend of strengthening government power, and at the same time allowed the will of the voters to be distorted.

The next step in the parliamentary reform was the creation in 1885 of new constituencies. Previously, deputies were elected from cities and counties as a whole, as from special legal institutions. After the law of 1885, an electoral district with a population of 15 to 50 thousand inhabitants elected 1 deputy, from 50 to 65 thousand inhabitants - 2 deputies, from 65 thousand inhabitants and more - 3 deputies.