The history of Europe is the era of renaissance. Renaissance in Western Europe Renaissance in Europe general and special

In the socio-economic and spiritual life of Western Europe from the 15th century. a number of changes took place that marked the beginning of a new era, which went down in history as the Renaissance (Renaissance). The new era realized itself as a revival of ancient culture, an ancient way of life, hence the name "Renaissance", that is, the Renaissance. In fact, the Renaissance culture was a synthesis of antiquity and medieval culture.

The revival was prepared by the whole course of pan-European development. But it was strongly influenced by historical and economic regional features. In the XIV-XV centuries. commodity-money relations were widely developed, elements of a new, capitalist economic system appeared. Italy was the first to embark on this path, which was largely facilitated by the high level of urbanization of Northern and Central Italy, the subordination of the countryside to the city, the wide scope of handicraft production, trade, and financial affairs, oriented not only to the domestic, but also to the foreign market. A wealthy, prosperous Italian city became the base of the Renaissance culture, secular in nature and general focus.

Changes in the mindset of society were associated, first of all, with the process of secularization - liberation from the influence of religion and church institutions of cultural and social life. Independence in relation to the church was acquired not only by economic and political life, but also by science and art. At first, this process proceeded very slowly and in different countries in different ways.

The ideology of the Renaissance was humanism, which at first meant a complex of knowledge about man, his place in nature and society. In subsequent centuries, the content of "humanism" has significantly expanded and become more complex. The birth of humanism occurred first of all in Italy - Florence, Naples, Rome, where humanist circles arose, and then it spread throughout Europe. The most prominent representatives of humanism were Leon Alberti (1404-1472), Leonardo Bouni (1370-1444), Giovanna pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1539), Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522).

The development of humanistic ideas in Italy, which intensified in the first decades of the 16th century. thanks to printing, the Catholic Church interrupted, whose attitude to the Renaissance culture changed dramatically during this period. If at first the Roman Catholic Church patronized the new art and did not interfere with the humanistic movement, then from the middle of the XVT century. she acted as an ardent enemy and strangler of the culture of the Renaissance. Such a sharp turn in the position of the church was inevitable, since the new ideology and culture largely contradicted the principles of the religious and theological worldview, church ideology and culture.

The main thing in the humanistic worldview was the recognition of the high dignity of the human person and his creative abilities. The humanistic idea of ​​active human activity contradicted the preached ideas of passivity and patient expectation of God's mercy. Knowledge as the basis of creativity was proclaimed by humanists as the main goal of human existence. The system of church virtues headed by faith gave way to the virtues of reason - knowledge, wisdom, prudence.

Humanism broke decisively with the ascetic ethics of Catholicism. The idea of ​​neglecting the flesh in the name of the freedom of the religious spirit was opposed to the theory of harmony of the body and soul, feelings and mind in the name of the perfection of human nature, for the sake of the highest manifestation of human creative abilities. A morality was formed that justified "honest enrichment", the joys of worldly life, the crown of success was considered the high prestige of the family, respect for fellow citizens, glory in the memory of descendants. All humanists recognized the high moral role of labor and valued the creative, constructive role of man. It was in the work, the deeds of the personality itself, and not in the nobility of origin, that they saw the basis of its nobility and dignity. Whether they wanted it or not, the humanists were consistent critics of the estates that dominated at that time, i.e. feudal, views on many ethical categories and norms.

But if the new worldview contradicted many important principles of the dominant Catholic ideology, then the attitude of the humanists to religion and the church was by no means always in accordance with their ideas. Most of the Italian humanists never broke with the Catholic Church and showed complete loyalty to it in everyday life. They treated questions of worship and faith with complete indifference.

Humanism was formed in the transitional era that separated the Middle Ages from the New Age. Objectively, his task was to prepare the ground for the free development of science, separating it from religion, to free a person from the narrow framework of medieval prohibitions, thereby ensuring social and economic progress in the countries of Europe. However, this process was completed only in the era of modern times - in the XVII-XVIII centuries. - and not in Italy, where it was interrupted by the Catholic reaction and the general decline of the country, but in other countries that embarked on the path of capitalist development.

XV-XVI centuries - the time of the creation of centralized states in Western Europe, the time when the Catholic Church sought to rise above secular power, which caused outrage and hatred in various sectors of society. In a number of states, papal rights were limited. These problems were especially acute in Germany. In politically fragmented Germany, representatives of the highest Catholic clergy felt themselves complete masters. The secular princes wanted to limit the omnipotence of the princes of the church, but they had neither real strength nor the necessary firmness for this. The question of the liberation of Germany from papal arbitrariness became a national task. The need for church reform was recognized by all social strata of the country.

The difficult internal situation of Germany, manifested in a rapid economic and social upsurge in an environment of unfavorable conditions for national development, was the cause of the Reformation, which became an offensive event for most European countries, but in Germany took on the character of a broad social movement.

The ideologist of the Reformation in Germany was Martin Luther (1483-1546), who challenged the Catholic religious concept in The Theses Against Indulgences (1517). Luther criticized the abuses and corruption of the morals of the Catholic clergy, defended the idea that the role of the church should be limited only to the teaching and instruction of Christians in the spirit of piety, rejected the role of the church as an intermediary between God and people, demanded that the laity be granted the right to arrange church affairs.

At the first stage of the Reformation, the opposition in Germany united around Luther, turning into a powerful revolutionary force. Luther became the spokesman for national interests.

In the 1520s, the situation changed. The united opposition began to disintegrate. Each estate defined its goals in the common struggle, its own understanding of the nature of the Reformation. Two main directions took shape: the followers of Luther and the popular Reformation, headed by T. Müntzer and M. Geismacher.

The most prominent spokesman for the popular Reformation was Thomas Müntzer. He saw the tasks of the Reformation not in the establishment of a new church dogma, but in the implementation of a socio-political revolution, which should be carried out by the peasants and the urban poor. Speaking out against the oppression of the people, Müntzer advocated a social system in which there would be no class differences, private property and state power alien to society.

The Reformation culminated in the Peasants' War of 1524-1525, during which princely power increased. Its instrument was the Lutheran Reformation, which continued the path towards the secularization of church lands. When, in 1529, Emperor Charles V suspended the "nationalization" of church lands, Luther's supporters protested, for which they were called "Protestants."

In 1555, the Protestant and Catholic princes of Germany concluded a religious peace between themselves and with the emperor, according to which princely sovereignty was declared inviolable and extended to the religious area. The religious affiliation of subjects was now determined by the supreme ruler on whose lands they lived. As a result of the agreement, Catholic and Protestant principalities were formed in Germany, which differed not only in religious, but also in political orientation. Thus, the Reformation in Germany contributed to the strengthening and consolidation of the political fragmentation of the country, which led to the stagnation and decline of economic life.

Germany since the middle of the XVI century. gradually lost its place in foreign markets. Moreover, merchants from other countries began to oust the Germans from local markets. The mining and metallurgical industries experienced a decline, trading firms were ruined, and capital investments in industrial production were reduced. The deteriorating position of cities, mining and metallurgical regions led to a reduction in the domestic market. A tangible blow was dealt to the agriculture of the west and southwest of Germany, focused on the cultivation of horticultural, wine-growing and industrial crops for the needs of rapidly developing cities. From the second half of the XVI century. Mostly those industries whose products were exported abroad turned out to be promising; in the countries of growing capitalism. The tendency to increase the enslavement of the peasants, especially the eastern lands, where there were favorable conditions for the development of export grain production, was gaining momentum. In the western lands, a system of small peasant farms was preserved, paying the feudal lords in cash and in-kind dues.

In Switzerland, the initiator of the Reformation was the priest Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531). John Calvin (1509-1564), who succeeded him, completed the Reformation in Switzerland. Calvin believed that it was predetermined who would go to heaven after death, and who would go to hell. But no one can know and will never know his verdict, so "Fear God, serve him with all your soul and hope that your verdict will be merciful." The main duty of a Christian is to do his work honestly, conscientiously, diligently. Everyone serves God in his own place, Calvin taught. His teachings spread to France (Huguenots) and England (Puritans). In the Netherlands, Calvinism became the ideological basis of the revolutionary struggle for independence from Catholic Spain (1566-1609). In the Scandinavian countries, the teachings of Luther turned out to be more attractive. All supporters of the Reformation from that time began to be called Protestants.

Great geographical discoveries: background and economic consequences. An important role in the decomposition of feudalism and the genesis of capitalism was played by the geographical discoveries of the late 15th - mid-17th centuries, when Europeans were actively exploring "new" regions of the Earth. The discoveries of this period are usually called the Great ones due to their exceptional significance for the destinies of Europe and the whole world.

The Age of Discovery is divided into two periods:

the Spanish-Portuguese period (the end of the 15th - the middle of the 16th century), which included the discovery of America (the first expedition of Columbus in 1492); Portuguese voyages to India and the shores of East Asia since Vasco da Gama's expedition; Spanish Pacific expeditions of the 16th century. from Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world to the expedition of Villalovos (1542-1543);

The period of Russian and Dutch discoveries (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries). It includes: the discovery by the Russians of all of North Asia (from Yermak's campaign to the voyage of Popov-Dezhnev in 1648), English and French discoveries in North America, Dutch Pacific expeditions and the discovery of Australia.

In the second half of the XV century. feudalism in Western Europe was at the stage of decomposition. Large cities grew, trade developed. Money became the universal medium of exchange, the need for which increased sharply. In Europe, the demand for gold increased greatly, which increased the desire for the "Indies - the birthplace of spices", where, according to Europeans, there was a lot of gold, silver, gems and spices. But the way to India became inaccessible for Europeans as a result of the Turkish conquests in Asia Minor and Syria. The monopoly of Italian merchants in the European trade in Oriental goods pumped gold from Europe to the East. The shortage of the precious metal hampered the development of trade and commodity production in Western European countries. Portugal was the first to start looking for southern sea routes to India. Having conquered the territory from the Arabs in the XIII century. and continuing the wars with the Arabs in North Africa, in the XIV-XV centuries. Portugal created a strong navy. Already in the 20-30s. 15th century The Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira and the Azores, moved far south along the western coast of Africa. The discovery in 1486 of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa created a real opportunity for preparing an expedition to India.

One of the most important reasons for the activity of Portugal, and then Spain in geographical discoveries, was the crisis of the feudal system of economy, expressed in the fragmentation of feudal estates and the ruin of the feudal lords. The Portuguese and Spanish nobles, who scorned all activities except war, were left without work after the victory over the Moors and very soon found themselves in debt to usurers. They dreamed of land holdings across the ocean, but even more of gold and jewels to pay off moneylenders.

Another reason for overseas expansion was the interest of the growing royal power, which dreamed of increasing revenues for the treasury. The urban bourgeoisie and the church were no less interested in the new lands. The bourgeoisie sought to expand the sources of primitive accumulation, the church - to expand its influence on the pagan countries. The desire for profit was covered with religious fanaticism - a familiar and convenient mask, under which the desire for power and personal gain was hidden.

Opportunities for long journeys were created by advances in science and technology, the development of shipbuilding and navigation. From the beginning of the XVI century. the compass, which, in combination with the astrolabe, played an important role in the development of navigation, is in general use. The ancient idea of ​​the sphericity of the earth was revived. In the XV century. a caravel designed for ocean navigation was created - a high-speed vessel with capacious holds. Of great importance was the improvement of firearms. Until the end of the XV century. ahead of other countries were the Portuguese. The knowledge they gained gave navigators of other countries new information about sea tides, low tides, currents, and wind direction. The mapping of new lands spurred the development of cartography.

From the end of the XV century. The Spaniards began to search for sea trade routes to India. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) arrived at the court of the Spanish kings. Columbus proposed to the Spanish monarchs his project - to reach the shores of India, sailing west across the Atlantic. Prior to this, Columbus offered his plan to the kings of other countries, but was refused. France and England did not have the necessary funds and fleet. The Portuguese by this time were already close to opening a route to India around Africa and did not need other people's services. In Spain, there was a more favorable environment for the implementation of Columbus' plans. After the conquest of Granada in 1492 and the end of the last war with the Arabs, the economic situation of the Spanish monarchy was very difficult. The treasury was empty, the crown no longer had vacant lands available for sale, and income from taxes on trade and industry was negligible. A huge number of nobles were left without a livelihood. In addition, Spanish industry needed markets. All these circumstances were decisive for the adoption of the Columbus project by the Spanish court. The idea of ​​an overseas expedition was supported by the top of the Catholic Church. An agreement was concluded between the Spanish king and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the rank of admiral, the right to "/ 10 of the income from new possessions and Vg of the profits from trade.

On August 3, 1492, a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Paloe, heading southwest. On October 12, 1492, the ships approached the Bahamas. Later, the island of Cuba was discovered and its northern coast was explored. Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, Columbus continued sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti, which had more gold than the already discovered islands. Columbus lost his largest ship off the coast of Haiti and was forced to leave part of the crew on the island. A fort was built here. The fortress of Navidad became the first Spanish settlement in the New World.

In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor. The discoveries of Columbus worried the Portuguese. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, an agreement was concluded, according to which Spain was given the right to own lands to the west of the Azores, and Portugal - to the east. Columbus made three more trips to America, during which the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Jamaica were discovered, and the coast of Central America was explored. Columbus believed until the end of his days that he had found a western route to India. In 1500, Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. However, the appearance in Spain of the famous navigator in chains caused outrage. Columbus was soon rehabilitated.

By 1502-1503. refers to the fourth voyage of Columbus to the New World in order to find a way out to the Indian Ocean and travel around the world. During the last trip, Columbus discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba, explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea. Two weeks after his return, Queen Isabella, who patronized Columbus, died. He lost support at court. Columbus died in 1506, forgotten by everyone, in complete poverty.

The tragic fate of Columbus is largely due to the success of the Portuguese. In 1497, an expedition of Vasco da Gama was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and in May 1498 reached the Indian port of Calicut. Having bought a large cargo of spices, the expedition set off on the return journey.

The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Huge opportunities opened up before the Portuguese for the commercial exploitation of India. Thanks to their superiority in armaments and naval technology, they managed to oust the Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and seize all maritime trade with India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. Attempts by the Arabs to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean were unsuccessful.

In India, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but only created strongholds on the coast, which made it possible to control all trade relations between individual areas of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade gave huge profits. Moving further east along the coast, they subjugated the transit routes of the spice trade. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king.

Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese stubbornly sought a western route to this country. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America, who proved that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new mainland, later called America.

Fernando Magellan, a member of the Portuguese expeditions, suggested that it was possible to reach India by moving west and skirting the newly discovered continent from the south. The Spanish government, which at that time did not receive large incomes from newly discovered lands, reacted with interest to the Magellan project. According to the agreement concluded by the Spanish king with Magellan, the navigator had to sail to the southern tip of the American mainland and open the western route to India. The titles of the ruler and governor of the new lands and the 20th part of all income that would go to the treasury complained to him.

September 20, 1519 a squadron of five ships headed west. A month later, the flotilla reached the southern tip of the American continent and for three weeks moved along the strait, which now bears the name of Magellan. On March 6, 1521, sailors reached three small islands from the Mariana group. Continuing his journey west, Magellan reached the Philippine Islands, where he died in a skirmish with the natives.

New discoveries aggravated the old contradictions between Spain and Portugal. For a long time, experts from both countries could not accurately determine the boundaries of Spanish and Portuguese possessions due to the lack of accurate data on the longitude of the newly discovered islands. In 1529 an agreement was reached. Spain renounced its claim to the Philippine Islands. However, for a long time no one dared to repeat the journey of Magellan, and the journey across the Pacific Ocean to the shores of Asia was of no practical importance.

From 1510, the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation.

In 1517-1518. detachments of Hernan de Cordoba and Juan Grimalva faced the most ancient civilization - the Mayan state. By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided among several city-states. Not only the superiority in armament, but also the internal struggle between the city-states made it easier for the Spaniards to conquer the Maya. The Spaniards learned from local residents that precious metals were brought from the country of the Aztecs. In 1519, a Spanish detachment led by Hernan Cortes set out to conquer these lands.

The Aztec state stretched from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. A large agricultural population lived here, a perfect system of artificial irrigation was created by the labor of many generations, high yields of cotton, corn, and vegetables were grown. The economic basis was the neighboring community. The Maya had a system of labor service. The population was used by the state in the construction of palaces, temples, etc. The craft had not yet separated from agriculture; both artisans and farmers lived in the community. A stratum of representatives of the nobility and leaders began to stand out - caciques, who had large plots of land and used the labor of slaves.

Unlike the Maya, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization, gradually making the transition to the hereditary power of the supreme ruler. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power among the representatives of the highest military nobility and the struggle of the conquered tribes against the conquerors facilitated the victory of the Spaniards. Mexico justified the hopes of the conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. v

The second stream of colonization went from the Isthmus of Panama to the south of the Pacific coast of America. The conquerors were attracted by the fabulously rich country of Peru with fertile densely populated lands. The population was engaged in agriculture, bred herds of llamas. Since ancient times, the territory of Peru was inhabited by the Quechua Indians. In the XIV century. one of the Quechuan tribes - the Incas conquered numerous Indian tribes. By the beginning of the XVI century. part of the territory of Chile and Argentina was part of the Inca state. From the tribe of conquerors, a military nobility was formed. The center of the Inca empire was the city of Cusco. The basic cell of society among the Incas, as well as among the Mayans and Aztecs, was the neighborhood community. From the communal lands, the fields of the nobility and elders, which were in their ownership, stood out. These lands they had the right to inherit.

The conquest of the territory of Peru by the Spaniards lasted more than 40 years. If at the first stage the conquerors seized the precious metals accumulated in previous times, then from 1530 in Mexico and on the territory of Peru, the richest mines began to be systematically exploited. Since then, the nature of colonization has changed. The conquerors abandoned the economic development of new lands. Everything necessary for the Spanish settlers began to be brought from Europe in exchange for the gold and silver of the New World. The noble, feudal nature of colonization predetermined the fact that the gold and silver of America fell mainly into the hands of the nobility. All conquered lands became the property of the crown. Starting in 1512, laws were passed that prohibited the enslavement of Indians. Formally, they were considered subjects of the Spanish king, paid a special tax and worked out labor service.

In the first half of the XVI century. in general terms, there was a system of government of the Spanish colonies in America. Colonial trade was placed under the control of the Seville Chamber of Commerce (1503), which carried out customs inspection of all goods, collected duties, and supervised emigration processes. Mining was the main industry in the Spanish colonies.

The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese colonies was different from the Spanish one. Since 1500, Brazil became the main object of colonization, where there was no settled agricultural population, and the small Indian tribes, who were at the stage of tribal system, were pushed into the interior of the country. The absence of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the commercial nature of the initial colonization of Brazil.

Since 1500, the economic development of the coastal regions of Brazil began. The coast was divided into 13 captaincies, the owners of which had full power. But Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so the settlement of the colonies was slow. The absence of peasant settlers and the paucity of the indigenous population made it impossible for the development of feudal forms of economy. The areas where the plantation system arose based on the exploitation of Negro slaves from Africa developed most successfully. Starting from the second half of the XVI century. the import of African slaves grew rapidly. White settlers lived mainly in the coastal strip in closed groups, engaged in trade and crafts.

In the second half of the XVI - early XVII century. "Spanish navigators made a number of Pacific expeditions from the territory of Peru, during which the Solomon Islands, South Polynesia and Australia were discovered. However, Spain did not have the strength and means to develop new lands. Therefore, the Spanish government kept all information about the discovery secret for a whole century , fearing the rivalry of other powers.It was not until the middle of the 17th century that the Dutch began to explore the coast of Australia.

Consequences of the Great geographical discoveries. In the first period of the Great Geographical Discoveries, when the main trade routes moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean, Portugal and Spain dominated trade. However, the main producers of industrial goods were the Netherlands, England and France, which made it possible for the bourgeoisie of these countries to get rich quickly, pumping gold and silver from the Pyrenean countries in exchange for manufactured goods. Gradually, they forced out competitors from the sea routes, and then from their overseas colonies. After the defeat of the "Invincible Armada" (1588), the Spanish-Portuguese power (in those years, both Pyrenean powers constituted a single state) was dealt a crushing blow. In particular, in the studies of the Pacific Ocean and the southern seas at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. the initiative passed to the Netherlands, and in the 40s. 17th century The bourgeois revolution in England brought that country, too, into the arena of struggle for markets, dominance on the seas, and colonial possessions.

One of the consequences of the Great geographical discoveries was the strengthening of new trends in the economic policy of European absolutism, which acquired a pronounced mercantilist character. The ruling dynasties in Spain, France, and England encouraged trade, industry, shipping, and colonial expansion by all means. Mercantilism was generated by developing capitalism, but it also met the interests of the nobility. National industry and trade provided the means to maintain the feudal state, and thus to maintain the social dominance of the nobles. The opening of new trade routes and previously unknown countries and continents, the establishment of stable ties between Europe and other parts of the world in a relatively short time allowed European countries to acquire huge resources.

As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, a system of colonial domination and colonial exploitation emerged.

Initially, the main method of exploitation of the colonies was open robbery. Subsequently, the tax system became widespread. But the main income from the exploitation of the colonies was brought by trade. The rise of Spain and Portugal as colonial states was relatively short-lived. The wealth received from the colonies was spent unproductively by the feudal nobility, while in England and France the development of industry and trade was encouraged. The positions of England, France and the Netherlands in the colonial markets were strengthened. They were able to use geographical discoveries more effectively to develop capitalism and create their own colonial empires.

The most important consequence of the discovery and colonization of new lands was the "price revolution", which gave a powerful impetus to the primitive accumulation of capital in Europe. It accelerated the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy. The "price revolution" took the form of an unusually rapid rise in prices during the sixteenth century. prices for agricultural and industrial goods. If before the XVI century. prices were basically stable, then for 70 years - from the 30s. 16th century and until the end of the century - they grew 2-4 times. Contemporaries associated such a price movement either with a large influx of precious metals into Europe, or with their leakage. However, the real cause of the "price revolution" was the fall in the value of precious metals as a commodity. The “price revolution” contributed to the enrichment of the industrial bourgeoisie that was emerging in this era and the impoverishment of manufacturing workers. The standard of living of wage workers declined as the rise in prices for agricultural products and consumer goods led to a fall in the real incomes of the population. The “price revolution” contributed to the accelerated enrichment of the prosperous part of the peasantry, the formation of the rural bourgeoisie, since the real wages of agricultural workers decreased, and with the fall in the purchasing power of money, the real amounts of rent or rent collected by landowners decreased, while prices for agricultural products grew. At the same time, the feudal lords who received a fixed cash rent suffered. The result of the "revolution of prices" was a general deterioration in the economic position of the feudal lords and hired workers, and the strengthening of the positions of the bourgeoisie. It accelerated the formation of the capitalist economy and the fall of the feudal system.

Thus, the Great geographical discoveries created the basis for the emergence of the international division of labor, the world economy and the market, changes in the organization of trade, credit, industry, and the rise of agriculture in European countries.

№ 14 The era of the revival of Western Europe. rebirth- this is a period in the cultural and ideological development of the countries of Western and Central Europe. The Renaissance manifested itself most clearly in Italy, because. in Italy there was no single state (with the exception of the south). The main form of political existence - small city-states with a republican form of government, feudal lords merged with bankers, wealthy merchants and industrialists. Therefore, in Italy, feudalism in its full forms did not take shape. The situation of rivalry between cities put in the first place not origin, but personal abilities and wealth. There was a need not only for energetic and enterprising people, but also for educated people. Therefore, a humanistic direction appears in education and worldview. Revival is usually divided into Early (beginning 14 - end 15) and High (end 15 - First quarter of 16.). The greatest artists of Italy belong to this era - Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti(1475 -1564) and Rafael Santi(1483 - 1520). This division applies directly to Italy, and although the Renaissance reached its peak in the Apennine Peninsula, its phenomenon spread to other parts of Europe. Similar processes north of the Alps are called « Northern Renaissance ». Similar processes took place in France and in the cities of Germany. Medieval man, and people of modern times, were looking for their ideals in the past. In the Middle Ages, people believed that they continued to live in. The Roman Empire continued, and the cultural tradition: Latin, the study of Roman literature, the difference was felt only in the religious sphere. But in the Renaissance, the view of antiquity changed, which saw something fundamentally different from the Middle Ages, mainly the absence of the all-encompassing power of the church, spiritual freedom, and the attitude towards man as the center of the universe. It was these ideas that became central in the worldview of the humanists. The ideals, so consonant with the new development trends, gave rise to the desire to resurrect antiquity in full, and it was Italy, with its huge number of Roman antiquities, that became fertile ground for this. The Renaissance manifested itself and went down in history as a period of extraordinary rise in art. If earlier works of art served church interests, that is, they were cult objects, now works are created to satisfy aesthetic needs. Humanists believed that life should bring pleasure and medieval monastic asceticism was rejected by them. A huge role in the formation of the ideology of humanism was played by such Italian writers and poets, as Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321), Francesco Petrarca (1304 - 1374), Giovanni Boccaccio(1313 - 1375). Actually, they, especially Petrarch, were the founders of both Renaissance literature and humanism itself. Humanists perceived their era as a time of prosperity, happiness and beauty. But this does not mean that it was devoid of controversy. The main one was that it remained the ideology of the elite, new ideas did not penetrate the masses of the people. And the humanists themselves sometimes had a pessimistic mood. Fear of the future, disappointment in human nature, the impossibility of achieving an ideal in the social structure pervade the moods of many figures of the Renaissance. Perhaps the most revealing in this sense was the tense expectation doomsday in 1500. The Renaissance laid the foundations for a new European culture, a new European secular worldview, and a new European independent personality.

rebirth- this is a period in the cultural and ideological development of the countries of Western and Central Europe. The Renaissance manifested itself most clearly in Italy, because. in Italy there was no single state (with the exception of the south). The main form of political existence - small city-states with a republican form of government, feudal lords merged with bankers, wealthy merchants and industrialists. Therefore, in Italy, feudalism in its full forms did not take shape. The situation of rivalry between cities put in the first place not origin, but personal abilities and wealth. There was a need not only for energetic and enterprising people, but also for educated people. Therefore, a humanistic direction appears in education and worldview. Revival is usually divided into Early (beginning 14 - end 15) and High (end 15 - First quarter of 16.). The greatest artists of Italy belong to this era - Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti(1475 -1564) and Rafael Santi(1483 - 1520). This division applies directly to Italy, and although the Renaissance reached its peak in the Apennine Peninsula, its phenomenon spread to other parts of Europe. Similar processes north of the Alps are called « Northern Renaissance ». Similar processes took place in France and in the cities of Germany. Medieval man, and people of modern times, were looking for their ideals in the past. In the Middle Ages, people believed that they continued to live in. The Roman Empire continued, and the cultural tradition: Latin, the study of Roman literature, the difference was felt only in the religious sphere. But in the Renaissance, the view of antiquity changed, which saw something fundamentally different from the Middle Ages, mainly the absence of the all-encompassing power of the church, spiritual freedom, and the attitude towards man as the center of the universe. It was these ideas that became central in the worldview of the humanists. The ideals, so consonant with the new development trends, gave rise to the desire to resurrect antiquity in full, and it was Italy, with its huge number of Roman antiquities, that became fertile ground for this. The Renaissance manifested itself and went down in history as a period of extraordinary rise in art. If earlier works of art served church interests, that is, they were cult objects, now works are created to satisfy aesthetic needs. Humanists believed that life should bring pleasure and medieval monastic asceticism was rejected by them. A huge role in the formation of the ideology of humanism was played by such Italian writers and poets, as Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321), Francesco Petrarca (1304 - 1374), Giovanni Boccaccio(1313 - 1375). Actually, they, especially Petrarch, were the founders of both Renaissance literature and humanism itself. Humanists perceived their era as a time of prosperity, happiness and beauty. But this does not mean that it was devoid of controversy. The main one was that it remained the ideology of the elite, new ideas did not penetrate the masses of the people. And the humanists themselves sometimes had a pessimistic mood. Fear of the future, disappointment in human nature, the impossibility of achieving an ideal in the social structure pervade the moods of many figures of the Renaissance. Perhaps the most revealing in this sense was the tense expectation doomsday in 1500. The Renaissance laid the foundations for a new European culture, a new European secular worldview, and a new European independent personality.

Renaissance is a time of rethinking the heritage of antiquity, the revival of its ideas. But it is wrong to consider this time as a repetition, an imitation of a bygone culture. The ideas born in the Middle Ages during the Renaissance largely influenced the specifics of the attitude of a person of this time.

The following provisions can be considered the basic principles of the attitude of a Renaissance man:

The earthly world is a hierarchy of God's creations, where only man himself has the highest perfection; theocentrism of world outlook is replaced by anthropocentrism;

There is a clear awareness of the problems of life;

Time and space are already evaluated by the framework of real existence, clearly defined by the forms of human activity. The space becomes visible. Time is like the present and fast flowing. The Renaissance type of personality is distinguished by titanism (he accomplishes so much in his life that many cannot afford) and universality (realizes his abilities in a wide variety of areas);

The ability to create becomes the highest manifestation of human divinity, and the artist becomes the most respected person in society;

Art and nature become equivalent concepts;

The beauty of the world is divided into natural, natural beauty and artificial, man-made beauty; human beauty - on the spiritual and physical.

Renaissance is the birth of the ideas of humanism, glorifying the creative potential of man. Humanism is clearly manifested in art. Humanists developed (practically rather than theoretically) that component of aesthetics, which today we call applied. Nature is seen as the highest form of beauty. Art is one of the forms of creativity carried out according to the laws of the beauty of nature. If medieval aesthetics considers art to be an appendix to matter, then

ready-made form, pre-existing in the soul of the artist and laid there God then in the Renaissance for the first time the idea arises that the artist myself creates and creates this form. Therefore, art is not a simple imitation of nature. It is a completely new phenomenon, which is an act of the creative act of a person who manifests his will and individuality through art.

Art is considered as one of the channels of human knowledge of the world around. Art actively interacts with science. The great titans of the Renaissance are not only engaged in artistic creativity, but also make scientific and technical discoveries. It is enough to mention the name of Leonardo da Vinci.

Art has become not only independent, but also began to show its morphological structure: the specificity of individual types of art is clearly beginning to appear. The creator becomes a professional in his field, in which skill and individuality begin to be especially valued.

Thus, art acquires an increasingly secular character, characterized by democracy and a desire for realism in reflecting the world. The concept arises "free activities" which include philosophy, history, eloquence, music and poetry. The authority of the artist in society begins to grow. The labor expended and the necessary professional knowledge become the criterion of art. Literature and fine arts become the most valued.

In this era, a new - modern literature. The word is understood as the highest manifestation of Beauty, the work on the figurativeness of the word - as the highest human destiny. The literature of the Renaissance is filled with a life-affirming character, admiration for the beauty of the world, man and his accomplishments. Its main theme is the theme of love.

Architecture The Renaissance was looking for an opportunity to create an ideal way of life through the creation of new architectural designs. The ideal of life was realized in Florence of the 15th century - the "ideal" city, modeled by the imagination and hands of great creators. The “ideal” city was born thanks to the discovery of the perspective outlined by Brunelleschi and Leonardo da Vinci and also due to the realized unity of the spatial-plastic and socio-political vision of the world. For the first time, human space appeared as opposed to natural space. The architecture of the city is considered as a synthesis of the city in general: the objective world of the city, the life of individual citizens, its public life with games, spectacles and theater.

One of the tasks visual arts- the importance of observing the canon of the beautiful, found by the ancients, but in such a way that the realism and vitality of the image do not suffer. Mastery of the image

niya becomes a profession. Art schools are developing. The fine arts of the Renaissance are characterized by:

Change of subject - a person becomes the object of increased attention;

Changing image techniques - direct perspective, the accuracy of the transfer of the structure of the human body;

Displacing a pure color with complex, compound colors;

The main means of expression is not light, but shadow, which contributes to the development of graphic arts in the visual arts;

Special interest in landscape;

The predominance of easel painting and the emergence of secular painting (portrait);

Development of oil painting technique;

interest in engraving.

AT sculpture there is a return of interest in the naked body. Sculptor Donatello he was the first (after the Middle Ages) to present a naked body in sculpture, created a new type of round statue and sculptural group, a picturesque relief. The naked body of Renaissance sculptures is filled with expression, movement, sensuality, eroticism. The postures became dynamic, the muscles became more tense, the emotions were open. The body, as in antiquity, is seen as a reflection of the soul. But the emphasis in the depiction of the human body is already different: it must be considered as a manifestation of special states souls. That is why sculptors study the human body so intently in various psychological situations. Looking at the sculptural images of a Renaissance man, we can first of all see his soul, state, emotions manifested in his posture, tense muscles, and facial expression.

Formation theater The renaissance is associated with names William Shakespeare and Lope de Bega. The main theatrical genres of this time are tragedy and comedy, mystery, miracle, farce and honeycombs(varieties of comedies). Content becomes more secular. The action takes place anywhere (on earth, in heaven, in the underworld) and covers events that continue for years and months. At the same time, there is still no integrity of the plot and selected types of characters. Ancient plots are often played out in school productions and are more likely to pursue educational and educational goals. The spectacles of theatrical performances were rather boring in terms of plot development, but entertained the audience with dance interludes, decorations and costumes. The theater of the Renaissance became believable, realistic, acquired the features of a stage action, which the viewer observes as if from the side.

Music for the first time manifests itself as a secular art, based on a secular beginning and existing without the additional tutelage of other arts or religion. The ability to sing and play a musical instrument becomes an indispensable quality of a cultured person.

Completely new genres appear in music: opera and instrumental direction. Improvisation was held in high esteem. New musical instruments are also becoming popular: the clavichord, the lute, and the violin. The organ was considered the most suitable instrument for reproducing images of "high" art. It was in organ art that the so-called monumental style was born - a parallel to baroque in painting and architecture, which began to take shape in the 16th century. In the XVI century in Spain appear first treatises about the art of music.

The revival in art prepared the design of new artistic styles: baroque, classicism, rococo.

At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, when Italy found itself at the center of international politics, the Renaissance spirit also penetrated other European countries. It manifested itself, in particular, in the strong Italian influence on political life and economic relations, which gave rise to the English historian A. Toynbee to speak of the "Italianization" of Europe.

Things were different in the field of culture. Outside of Italy, especially in the north of Europe, the ancient heritage played a much more modest role than in the birthplace of the Renaissance (read about the Italian Renaissance). Of decisive importance were the national traditions and peculiarities of the historical development of various peoples.

These circumstances were clearly manifested in Germany, where a broad cultural movement arose, called the Northern Renaissance. It was in Germany at the height of the Renaissance that printing was invented. In the middle of the XV century. Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1397-1468) published the world's first printed book, a Latin edition of the Bible. Printing quickly spread throughout Europe, becoming a powerful means of disseminating humanistic ideas. This landmark invention changed the whole character of European culture.

The prerequisites for the Northern Renaissance were formed in the Netherlands, especially in the rich cities of the southern province of Flanders, where almost simultaneously with the early Italian Renaissance, elements of a new culture were born, the most striking expression of which was painting. Another sign of the advent of new times was the appeal of the Dutch theologians to the moral problems of the Christian religion, their desire for a "new piety". Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536), the greatest thinker of the Northern Renaissance, grew up in such a spiritual atmosphere. A native of Rotterdam, he studied in Paris, lived in England, Italy, Switzerland, gaining pan-European fame with his work. Erasmus of Rotterdam became the founder of a special direction of humanistic thought, called Christian humanism. He understood Christianity primarily as a system of moral values ​​that had to be followed in everyday life.

Based on an in-depth study of the Bible, the Dutch thinker created his own theological system - the "philosophy of Christ." Erasmus of Rotterdam taught: “Do not think that Christ is concentrated in rites and services, no matter how you observe them, and in church institutions. A Christian is not the one who is sprinkled, not the one who is anointed, not the one who is present at the sacraments, but the one who is imbued with love for Christ and is exercising in pious deeds.

Simultaneously with the High Renaissance in Italy, the fine arts also flourished in Germany. Central to this process was the brilliant artist Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528). His home was the free city of Nuremberg in southern Germany. During trips to Italy and the Netherlands, the German artist had the opportunity to get acquainted with the best examples of contemporary European painting.

In Germany itself, at that time, such a type of artistic creativity as engraving, a relief drawing applied to a board or a metal plate, was widely used. Unlike paintings, engravings, reproduced in the form of separate prints or book illustrations, became the property of the widest circles of the population.

Durer brought the engraving technique to perfection. The cycle of his woodcuts "Apocalypse", illustrating the main biblical prophecy, is one of the greatest masterpieces of graphic art.

Like other Renaissance masters, Dürer entered the history of world culture as an outstanding portrait painter. He became the first German artist to receive pan-European recognition. The artists Lucas Cranach Sr. (1472-1553), known as a master of mythological and religious scenes, and Hans Holbein Jr. (1497/98-1543) also gained great fame.

Holbein worked for several years in England, at the court of King Henry VIII, where he created a whole gallery of portraits of his famous contemporaries. His work marked one of the pinnacles of the artistic culture of the Renaissance.

French Renaissance

The culture of the Renaissance in France was also distinguished by its great originality. After the end of the Hundred Years War, the country experienced a cultural upsurge, relying on its own national traditions.

The flourishing and enrichment of French culture was facilitated by the geographical position of the country, which opened up opportunities for close acquaintance with the cultural achievements of the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy.

The new culture enjoyed royal support in France, especially during the reign of Francis I (1515-1547). The formation of a national state and the strengthening of royal power was accompanied by the formation of a special court culture, which was reflected in architecture, painting, and literature. In the river valley Loire was built several castles in the Renaissance style, among which Chambord stands out. The Loire Valley is even called the "showcase of the French Renaissance." During the reign of Francis I, the country residence of the French kings of Fontainebleau was built, and the construction of the Louvre, a new royal palace in Paris, began. Its construction was completed during the reign of Charles IX. Under Charles IX himself, the construction of the Tuileries Palace began. These palaces and castles were among the most remarkable architectural masterpieces of France. The Louvre is now one of the largest museums in the world.

The Renaissance is the birth of the portrait genre, which for a long time prevailed in French painting. The most famous were the court painters Jean and Francois Clouet, who depicted the images of French kings from Francis I to Charles IX and other famous people of their time.

The most striking phenomenon of the French Renaissance is the work of the writer Francois Rabelais (1494-1553), which reflected both the national identity of the country and the Renaissance influence. His satirical novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" presents a wide panorama of the French reality of that time.

An active participant in the political life of France in the late XV - early XVI century. Philippe de Commines laid the foundations for French historical and political thought in modern times. The greatest contribution to their further development was made by the remarkable thinker Jean Bodin (1530-1596) with his works “The method of easy knowledge of history” and “Six books about the state”.

English humanism

Oxford University, which had a long tradition of classical education, became the largest center of humanistic culture in England. Studied ancient literature here Thomas More (1478-1535), whose name has become a symbol of English humanism. His main work is Utopia. It depicts the image of an ideal state. This book laid the foundation and gave the name to a peculiar literary genre - social utopia. "Utopia" in Greek means "a country that does not exist."

Depicting an ideal society, More contrasted it with contemporary English reality. The fact is that the New Age brought with it not only undoubted achievements, but also serious social contradictions. The English thinker was the first to show in his work the social consequences of the capitalist transformation of the English economy: the massive impoverishment of the population and the split of society into rich and poor.

In search of the reasons for this situation, he came to the conclusion: "Where there is only private property, where everything is measured for money, there is hardly ever possible the correct and successful course of state affairs." T. More was a major political figure of his time, in 1529-1532. he even served as Lord Chancellor of England, but because of disagreement with the religious policy of King Henry VIII, he was executed.

Renaissance daily life

The Renaissance brought great changes not only to artistic culture, but also to everyday culture, the daily life of people. It was then that many household items familiar to modern man first appeared or became widespread.

An important innovation was the appearance of a variety of furniture that came to replace the simple and bulky structures of the Middle Ages. The need for such furniture led to the birth of a new craft - carpentry, in addition to the simpler carpentry.

The dishes became richer and more qualitatively made; mass distribution, in addition to the knife, received spoons and forks. Food also became more diverse, the range of which was significantly enriched due to products brought from newly discovered countries. The general growth of wealth, on the one hand, and a sharp increase in the amount of precious metals and stones that flooded into Europe as a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, on the other, led to the flourishing of jewelry art. Life in Renaissance Italy becomes more sophisticated and beautiful.

The late Middle Ages left such things as scissors and buttons as a legacy to the Renaissance, and at the beginning of the XTV century. in Burgundy, which then dictated the fashion in Europe, the tailoring was invented. The production of clothes stood out as a special profession - the craft of a tailor. All this has made a real revolution in the field of fashion. If earlier clothes did not change for a very long time, now it could be easily designed according to any taste. The Italians adopted the fashion for cut clothes that arose in Burgundy and began to develop it further, setting the tone for the whole of Europe.

The historical significance of the Renaissance

The most important merit of the culture of the Renaissance was that for the first time it revealed the inner world of man in its entirety.

Attention to the human personality and its uniqueness was manifested literally in everything: in lyrical poetry and prose, in painting and sculpture. In the visual arts, the portrait and self-portrait became popular as never before. In literature, such genres as biography and autobiography have been widely developed.

The study of individuality, that is, the characteristics of character and psychological make-up that distinguish one person from another, has become the most important task of cultural figures. Humanism has led to a versatile acquaintance with the human individuality in all its manifestations. The entire Renaissance culture as a whole formed a new type of personality, the hallmark of which was individualism.

At the same time, affirming the high dignity of the human personality, Renaissance individualism also led to the disclosure of its negative aspects. So, one of the historians noted "the envy of celebrities competing with each other", who had to constantly fight for their own existence. “As soon as the humanists begin to rise,” he wrote, “they immediately become extremely unscrupulous in their means in relation to each other.” It was during the Renaissance, concluded another researcher, that “the human personality, completely left to itself, surrendered itself to the power of its own selfish interests, and the corruption of morals became inevitable.”

From the end of the 15th century, the decline of Italian humanism begins. In the context of the diverse conflicts characteristic of the history of the 16th century, humanistic culture as a whole collapsed. The main result of the development of humanism was the reorientation of knowledge to the problems of human earthly life. The revival as a whole was a very complex and ambiguous phenomenon that marked the beginning of the modern stage in the history of Western Europe.

From T. More's book "Utopia"

For “public welfare, there is only one way - to declare equality in everything. I don't know if this can be observed where everyone has their own property. Because when someone, based on a certain right, appropriates to himself as much as he can, then, no matter how great the wealth, it will be completely divided among a few. For the rest, they leave poverty to their lot; and it almost always happens that some are much more worthy of the fate of others, for the former are predatory, dishonorable and good for nothing, while the latter, on the contrary, are modest, simple men, and with their daily zeal they bring good to society more than to themselves. ".

References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century