In close connection with the change in the concept of philosophy was the evolution of ideas about its subject. In the history of philosophy, there have been three main approaches to the definition of the subject of philosophy: ancient, traditional, modern. The subject of "ancient philosophy, understood as "proto-knowledge" (it included philosophical and scientific knowledge), was the whole reality, the world as a whole. Within this "proto-knowledge" Aristotle singled out the "first philosophy", the subject of which was considered to be the existent or the first principles.

The traditional understanding of the subject of philosophy is closely connected with the development of metaphysics in German classical philosophy. Its founder, I. Kant, believed that "metaphysics is the true, true philosophy, the subject of which is the universal." Understanding the subject of philosophy as universal, which is pure thought, is also characteristic of Hegel. In the future, the interpretation of the universal was different in different philosophical systems, both materialistic and idealistic directions.

In modern philosophy, the subject of philosophy is considered differently. For subjective-anthropological teachings, widespread in Western philosophy, the focus is on the problem of the individual, his consciousness, on the universal in the existence of the individual. The subject of philosophy here is the "whole man". For ontological philosophical doctrines, the subject of philosophy is the world as a whole. Philosophy is interested not only in one person, but in the whole world. The philosophical approach is characterized by the isolation of the general in everything particular and the study of it. Moreover, not every universal in being is the subject of philosophy, but only that which is associated with the attitude of man towards it. Therefore, the definition of the subject of philosophy through the universal in the system "world - man" seems to be quite legitimate. Philosophy acts as a system of views on the world as a whole and on the relation of man as an integral being to this integral world. Moreover, the relationship between the parties of this system is divided into the following aspects: ontological, cognitive, axiological, spiritual and practical.

The subject of philosophy is what it does, what it studies. Philosophy is primarily concerned with what is outside it, what exists outside of it. Of course, at a certain stage of development, philosophy itself can become the subject of special consideration, which belongs to the field of metaphilosophy. However, these are different aspects of philosophical research. 5 The definition of the main problems of philosophy that make up its content helps clarify the subject of philosophy. What is a problem? A problem in philosophy is understood as a logical form of cognition, which acts as a question that contributes to the organization of cognitive activity. In other words, the problems of philosophy are those organizational issues that philosophy solves as a specific field of knowledge. The difference between the subject of philosophy and the problems of philosophy lies primarily in the fact that the subject of philosophy is reflected in the problems of philosophy, but it is not reflected completely and not immediately, but in stages in the form of questions.

We can distinguish two groups of problems of philosophy, closely related, but not reducible to each other. The first includes questions related to the comprehension of its subject: the world, man, the relationship between them and questions concretizing them at other levels of research. To the second - questions of the emergence of philosophy and the forms of its being, the nature of philosophical knowledge and research methods, the features of historical development.

Philosophical teachings differ from each other not only in how they solve certain questions, but also in what problems they pose. The selection of problems also characterizes the specifics of certain philosophical teachings. Such a representative of subjective idealism as I. Kant considered the main philosophical problems to be a priori, originally inherent in the human mind. The existentialist interpretation of the specifics of philosophical problems is that they are regarded as an incomprehensible mystery. Hence the specificity of philosophical knowledge is not in the answer to existing questions, but in the very method of questioning. As for positivism, its representatives, for example, O. Comte, generally reject the former metaphysics as dealing with pseudo-problems. Modern positivists believe that philosophical problems do not actually exist, that they are simply contrived questions that owe their origin to misuse of words.

All philosophical problems are not given simultaneously in any one particular era, but are formed in the course of history. The choice of certain new problems and their discussion depends on the needs of the time. Philosophical problems are initially formed on the basis of people's everyday experience, as was the case, for example, in the ancient period. In the Middle Ages, religion served as such a basis, and since modern times, science. All this led to a constant change in the range of philosophical problems, when some of them continued to function, others were transferred to the rank of scientific problems, and still others were just emerging.

In ancient philosophy, the problem of understanding the world as a whole, its origin and existence, came to the fore, and it became cosmocentric (Greek kosmos - the universe). In the Middle Ages, religious philosophy was characterized by theocentrism (Greek theos - god), according to which nature and man were considered as the creation of God. In the Renaissance, philosophy becomes anthropocentric (Greek anthropos - man) and attention is transferred to the problems of man, his morality and social problems. The formation and development of science in modern times contributes to the fact that the problem of cognition, scientific methods, in particular, the problem of superexperimental knowledge, comes to the fore. In modern world philosophy, for example, in postmodernism, there is a kind of decentration and the former opposition of center and periphery loses its meaning. In a decentered cultural space, there is a "polyphony" of various cultural worlds, in which their own philosophical problems play a leading role. So, if anthropological problems are actively developed in some philosophical currents, then in others philosophical problems are reduced either to ontological problems, or to the logical analysis of science, to the understanding and interpretation of texts.

Features of solving the main problems of philosophy are determined both by external, socio-cultural factors, and by internal, immanent laws of certain philosophical schools and teachings.

The main problems of philosophy run through its entire history, being universal and eternal. At the same time, their complete and final solution cannot be carried out and they arise in new historical conditions like a Phoenix bird from the ashes.

The universal problem of the philosophical worldview is the problem of the relationship "the world - man". Philosophers have long sought to single out in this universal problem the main, so-called basic question of philosophy. So, for N.A. Berdyaev, the main problem is the freedom of man, his essence, nature and purpose.A. Camus, focusing on the problem of human essence, considers the main question of the meaning of life.

F. Engels, who formulated the main question of philosophy in a classical form, singles out two sides in it: 1) what is primary - spirit or nature, and 2) is the world cognizable? He believed that when solving the first side, philosophers were divided into two camps. Materialists recognize matter, nature as primary, and consider consciousness as secondary, derived from matter. Idealists believe that spirit, consciousness precede matter and create it. The following historical forms of materialism are usually distinguished: the spontaneous, naive materialism of the ancient Greeks (Heraclitus, Democritus), the metaphysical materialism of the 18th century. (La Mettrie, Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius), vulgar materialism (Buchner, Focht, Moleschott), anthropological materialism (Feuerbach, Chernyshevsky), dialectical materialism (Marx, Engels, Lenin). There are two varieties of idealism: objective and subjective. Supporters of objective idealism (Plato, Hegel, N. Hartmann) proceed from the recognition that the basis of all things is an objective spiritual principle independent of man (world mind, absolute idea, world will). Subjective idealists consider the primary consciousness of man, the subject, which is recognized as the only reality, while reality is the result of the spiritual creativity of the subject (Berkeley, Hume, Kant).

The second side of the main question of philosophy - is the world cognizable? Most philosophers (materialists and idealists) recognize the cognizability of the world and they are called epistemological optimists. At the same time, there are philosophers who deny the cognizability of the world. They are called agnostics (Hume, Kant), and the doctrine that denies the reliability of knowledge is called agnosticism (Greek - negation, gnosis - knowledge).

In every philosophical system, philosophical problems are concentrated around the main question, but are not exhausted by it. In modern philosophy, there are many problems that can be summarized in five groups: ontological, anthropological, axiological, epistemological, praxeological.

The specificity of philosophical problems lies primarily in their generality. There are no broader problems than ideological ones, since they are the limit for the existence of a person and his activity in relation to the world. The next feature of philosophical problems is their eternity, constancy for all time. This is the problem of the "world as a whole", the problem of man, the meaning of human life, and so on. Philosophical problems are "eternal" because they retain their significance in every era. An important feature of philosophical problems is considered to be a specific study of the relationship between being and consciousness.

The specificity of philosophical problems does not exclude the connection with the problems of particular sciences. Comprehension of this connection contributes to the allocation of such a phenomenon as the philosophical problems of private sciences. The latter are such theoretical private scientific problems, the proposed solution of which requires a philosophical interpretation. These include, in particular, the problems of the origin of life, philosophical understanding of the phenomenon of technology, economy, law, etc.

In the course of solving many philosophical problems of science and technology, a special area of ​​philosophical knowledge arose - the philosophy of global problems. Her interests include understanding the worldview, methodological and axiological aspects of ecology, demography, the new world order, futurological forecasts, etc.

In the philosophy of global problems, a synthesis of philosophical and religious values ​​is carried out, new worldview guidelines are developed that are necessary both for the life of an individual and for humanity as a whole.

The central problem of philosophy is the relationship between thinking and being. The subject of philosophy is being, knowledge, man, society. It historically changed in connection with the material and spiritual development of society and philosophy itself.

The origin of philosophy historically coincided with the emergence of the beginnings of scientific knowledge. Philosophy is historically the first form of theoretical knowledge. It answered questions already posed by mythology and religion. But she has a different way of dealing with these issues; it is based on theoretical analysis and is consistent with practice. In antiquity, philosophy embraced all knowledge. Philosophers sought mainly to understand the origin of natural phenomena, considering the world as a whole.

During the Renaissance and especially in the XVII - XVIII centuries. special sciences begin to separate from philosophy, each of which singles out its own subject area. Mechanics, physics, later chemistry, biology, jurisprudence, political economy become independent branches of scientific knowledge. This progressive division of labor in the sphere of scientific knowledge qualitatively changes the role and place of philosophy in the system of knowledge, its relationship with the particular sciences. Philosophy ceases to deal with the solution of special problems of mechanics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, law, etc. and forms its own problem field. Now philosophy explores the extremely general characteristics of man and the world. Philosophy differs from the private sciences also in that it expresses the value attitude of man to the world. Philosophy is knowledge not only about the world, but also about the relationship of man to the world.

Philosophical problems related to the fundamental issues of human existence are of an invariant and eternal nature. "Eternal" philosophical problems are constantly reproduced on the basis of new achievements of real knowledge and transformations in human social life.

3. Specificity of philosophical knowledge is that it:

1. has a complex structure, including ontology, epistemology, logic, etc.;

2. is extremely general, theoretical;

3. contains the basic, fundamental ideas and concepts that underlie the private sciences;

4. largely subjective, i.e. bears the imprint of the personality and worldview of specific philosophers;

5. is a combination of objective knowledge and values, moral ideals of its time, is influenced by the era;

6. studies not only the subject of knowledge, but also the mechanism of knowledge itself;

7. strongly influenced by the doctrines worked out by former philosophers;

9. Explores fundamentally insoluble, "eternal" problems: the origin of being, the relationship between matter and consciousness, the origin of life, the immortality of the soul, the meaning of life.

Methods of Philosophy

Method is the way implementation of the study. Basic Methods of Philosophy Keywords: dialectics, metaphysics, dogmatism, eclecticism, sophistry, hermeneutics.

Dialectics – a method of philosophical research, in which the world is considered from the standpoint of consistency, internal inconsistency, variability, and development.

Metaphysics – a method opposite to dialectics, in which objects are considered: separately, statically, unambiguously.

Dogmatism – study of the world through the prism of once and for all accepted beliefs, unprovable, "given from above" and bearing an absolute character.

Eclecticism – a method based on an arbitrary combination of disparate facts, concepts, concepts that do not have a single basis, as a result of which superficial, but seemingly reliable conclusions are reached.

Sophistry – a method based on the derivation of a new proposition from false, but skillfully presented as true, propositions. Sophistry aims not to obtain the truth, but to win the dispute, and is used as a technique of oratory.

hermeneutics – correct reading and interpretation of texts.

M materialism - a method in which matter is treated as the primary substance, and consciousness - how matter function.

Idealism means the recognition of the spiritual principle of the world, and matter – as a derivative of an idea, its embodiment.

Empiricism – method and direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which the basis of the cognitive process is the experience obtained as a result of sensory perception of the world.

Rationalism – method and direction in epistemology, according to which truth can be achieved only with the help of reason without the influence of sensory experience.

Understanding the essence of objects and objects of interest that are formed, become and reform in the process of studying to the stage of satisfying the need for knowledge of the essence of something by a person.

It always seems to us at first that we see and understand objects. But what we see does not always mean the truth, because it is possible to consider a situation, an object, feelings from absolutely different angles.

Each time, taking a new position, we discover something new in concepts already familiar to us - this is philosophy.

Everyone is capable of thinking, everyone has their own opinion. These thoughts are unconscious knowledge about the environment, the basis of being.

It is much easier to understand objects than some global and even intangible concepts that cannot be touched: nature in general, the spirit, the structure of the world.

More global concepts require deeper study, which is not available to everyone. In general, the ability to philosophy must be developed by each person, because by making our own conclusions, which often differ from public opinion, we become special, differ from each other.

In order to learn the philosophy of nature, many people came to different concepts, in the process of studying many facts were discovered, which were subsequently used in other sciences.

1. What is the subject of philosophy?

The subject matter of philosophy is- from small to large and vice versa: from a person to the environment of his stay, ways of knowing and thinking.

The main subjects of philosophy today are man, society and the object of knowledge itself. Other questions that were of interest to our ancestors have already been answered, so the circle of study of the subject of philosophy will gradually narrow until a new revolutionary breakthrough in consciousness appears, which will form new relevant subjects of philosophy.

- one of the most studied aspects of existence, which has been studied since the earliest period of human development. This issue remains relevant to this day.

Man has always been interested in where he came from, how his body is arranged, what makes him make certain decisions. Man has been the subject of philosophy from the very beginning of his existence. So, in the period of antiquity, the study of man was carried out with the help of metaphysics.

During the Middle Ages, human nature was explained by theology. The new time forces us to study a person from more scientific points of view, which have mathematical and mechanical formulas.

The next stage is the study of man through the study of biology.

Throughout the existence of philosophy, many concepts have appeared that partly explain all the mechanisms that take place inside us. The combination of all this knowledge makes it possible to make a general picture of the existence of people.

From the point of view of philosophy, the study of man is approached in 3 stages.

• The first stage allows you to study a person as the most intelligent inhabitant of our planet.
• The second is the history of the formation of mankind.
• The third stage is the study of each individual separately.

It was the study of a person individually that formed such concepts as personality, individuality. All these concepts are actually different and require careful additional study.

Knowledge of the rules and principles of society, methodological study of ideas that are realized by social scientific knowledge.

Share 2 approaches to the study of society. The first is the starting point for explaining all material wealth, and the second is studying the spiritual part.

It is important to study society starting with the assessment of the individual. There are several trends in the study of society. Thus, the theory of Marxists is based on the fact that it is society that forms the rules of behavior, culture and other social factors. In turn, existentialism studies society on the basis of each person separately.

And according to the teachings of the new Kantians, society makes laws and regulations, similarly as in nature, its own laws are formed. Laws are formed according to the era in which a person lives, based on his needs.

Each trend approached the assessment of society from its own side, studying, first of all, what is relevant at a given moment in time.

It is one of the most difficult subjects of research, since it is based on various methods that are being improved to this day.

This is sensation and perception, representation of various images and concepts that form one's own point of view.

Cognition is studied from different points of view. So, you can study from the opposite - to deny any phenomenon. There is also a skeptical direction of knowledge, rational, critical, realistic. Each of these methods has its followers.

The main problem that is studied in the study of cognition is the relationship of man to the world. The problem has been relevant since ancient times, and to this day.

In ancient times, due to the lack of scientific research for the knowledge of the world, religious, mythical, mystical conjectures were used, which at the moment have little overlap with real methods of cognition.

1.4. The subject of philosophy

By studying philosophy, we determine what is the subject of philosophy. For a sufficiently long period of time, the knowledge that society received from individual sciences was precisely the subject of philosophy. Such principles were used until the 18th century. At the same time, the subject of philosophy was often divided into smaller parts, which were more convenient to study.

If the ancient Greeks studied nature, then later, in the time of Aristotle, people began to be interested not only in nature, but also in the whole world.

Christian philosophers, who for a long time treated their own subjects of philosophy, studied mainly the relationship between man and God. In the new period of time, more attention began to be paid to the methods of cognition. Again, in the Age of Enlightenment, man became one of the main subjects of study. The main purpose of the research was aimed at obtaining an answer to the reasons for the existence of a person and setting his life goals.

To summarize: the subject of philosophy, what it is - consideration of questions about how philosophy arises, develops and how it is combined with other sciences and methods of knowledge. In other words, we can say that, in general, the subject of philosophy is a combination of various issues that relate to the relationship of man in the world.

2. Historical development of the subject of general philosophy.

2.1 Formation of the subject of philosophy

With the beginning of the transmission of information through writing and the development of civilizations, the first outlines of philosophy as a science appeared. The centers of development of philosophy since ancient times were India, China, Egypt, Greece and Rome.

The history of the ascent of philosophy lasts more than 2,500 years.

The main problems that are touched upon throughout this period are the search for the causes of being, the knowledge of the world and the explanation of the reasons for the existence of a person, his life goals and relationship with higher powers. Questions of knowledge also formed the morality of society.

The formation of the subject of philosophy is based not on the search for one explanation of any problem, but on the search for all possible options for considering causes and effects.

Philosophy began to be seen as:

• a specific method of perceiving the world;
• form of social consciousness;
• the science of the principles of existence and the relationship of man to nature;
• the doctrine of methods of knowledge of the world;
• a kind of special spiritual activity that comprehensively develops a person.

Most philosophers still believe that philosophy is not just a mental activity, it is a science that is based on theory and experience, deals with complex concepts, conclusions, principles, laws and hypotheses.

The historical change in the subject of philosophy depends on the factors of the development of civilization, the needs of people. Studying the subject of philosophy and its historical dynamics, we can distinguish several stages in the development of the subject of philosophy.

So, during the period of 1000 years BC the main task of philosophy was the systematization of thought, the formation of ideas about the emergence of the world, filling the meaning of the concepts of "wisdom", "meaning".

With the advent of Christianity(1st-4th century AD) the philosophy of being has completely changed. So, the main subject of study was the relationship of man with God.

In the Middle Ages, when religion became a virtual "monopolist" in the formation of public opinion, philosophy was given an insignificant place. One can say for sure about a certain decline in philosophy as a science, since dissent was not allowed in society.

The historical dynamics of the subject of philosophy resumed in the era of modern times when people again began to think about other options for their development. Moreover, in the 17th-18th century people hoped that with the help of philosophy as a science a universal model would be created that could contain all the information about the world and the place of man in it.

2.3. The evolution of the subject of philosophy.

The evolution of the subject of philosophy went through 3 stages:

• The first stage can be considered cosmocentrism - that is, the explanation of everything that happens on earth through the influence of space.
• Theocentrism is considered the second stage of evolution - an explanation of everything that happens as a result of the creation of God or another supernatural force.
• The third stage of evolution can be safely considered anthropocentrism - that is, the problems of man and humanity as a whole are put forward in the first place.

The main specificity of philosophy is its duality, or relationship with other sciences and knowledge. Philosophy feeds new achievements, improves knowledge in other sciences. Whatever the evolution of views on the subject of philosophy, its essence is always explained only from a theoretical point of view. If science confirms this or that fact, the subject of philosophy exhausts itself or is deformed into a new.

Philosophy has always been influenced by eras, various subjective interpretations of representatives of philosophical schools. But so far, the eternal problems remain - being, matter, movement, etc.

3. Place and role of the subject of philosophy in society and world culture

The role of the subject of philosophy in society and world culture is formed by several factors:

• level of development of civilization;
• the level of personality development;
• scientific progress;
• the influence of culture and religion on the formation of issues of interest and the being and meaning of a person in society / world.

3.1 The subject of philosophy and its place and role in society

When studying the subject of philosophy and its role in society, it must be remembered that all philosophical achievements are only the theoretical basis of the worldview, but philosophy solves the problems of human orientation in society, in the world of spiritual ideas and values.

These critical answers to questions enable society to exist calmly, without resorting to panic, form your goals and tasks to be solved during life, to support the development of mankind and civilizations.

The subject of philosophy and its role in the life of society forms the backbone- the basis of the functional purpose of philosophy. The main tasks are more deeply studied and concretized. New categories of thinking are being developed that best reflect the connections and relationships of things that form the basis of the objective world and thinking.

3.2. The subject of philosophy and its place and role in world culture

Cultural history shows that in its form and content, philosophy is a multivariate science. In European culture, the value of philosophy is invaluable, since it was thanks to it that a love for wisdom, culture, and knowledge was formed. It is in philosophy that the sources of vital wisdom are located, which are transferred by peoples from generation to generation. For example, Plato's philosophy is based on mythology, in which Socrates reigns- a thinker who personifies wisdom.

The Roman philosophers turned philosophy into rules of morality and behavior of mankind.

medieval philosophy became the servant of theology, and in modern times has become a decisive force for the development of science.

Now we know that philosophy exists according to the strict scientific rules of the classics of philosophical thought: Kant, Hegel, Husserl. Philosophy, as an artistic narrative, was brought to us by such thinkers as Dostoevsky, Mann, Hesse, etc. But it should also be noted that philosophy is “written to order” for a society that needs answers to questions that have become relevant today.

Whatever form philosophy takes, it will always solve sociocultural tasks and be fulfilled with varying degrees of success in the life of a person and society as a whole.

The problems of forming the subject of philosophy arise mainly for the following reasons:

• not confirmed by practice of theoretical thoughts,
• subjective opinion of philosophers,
• the rapid development of science, which can often completely rebuild an already established picture of being.

The history of philosophy gave rise to 3 problems that are being solved to this day.

The first is the existence of mankind and the person himself is seen as the center of social relations. That is, the very essence of existence is explained by human behavior in society; philosophy itself as a science manifests itself precisely where social relationships are formed. Philosophers such as Marx and Engels came to the conclusion that many social sciences should be combined with philosophy, since they are a form of historical and social knowledge.

Second problem. Man and being carry a value-semantic load. That is, the value of being is considered not as a whole, but personally for each person. This is where the problem of separating objective and subjective thinking arises, since each person has their own goals of being. The basis of the problem is the study of the human mind as the highest mind on earth.

The third problem - being and man are considered as material and spiritual substances. Here, the connection between spirituality and the material condition of a person is studied. At the same time, it is important to find out from what substance phenomena occur, from where they arise and where they disappear.

4.1 The subject of philosophy and the specificity of philosophical problems by its definition

The main specificity of the problems of philosophy is that in the process of finding an answer, it is necessary to identify the relationship between different types of knowledge and ready-made answers, and at the same time, it is necessary to take into account the differences from each other.

Philosophical speculation- systemic and rational, they are based on certain assumptions and logical conclusions and achievements. This can be defined as the convergence of philosophy to scientific research.

The conclusions that philosophers receive from the process of research are integral expressions of the world, the attitude of a person to it, the spiritual definition of the world at the level of all possible relationships.

Any knowledge should form a general picture of the worldview (scientific, religious or philosophical). It is in this property that the specificity of philosophy as a science is formed, since it is flexible, but always characterized by universality.

Another specificity of philosophical problems is the significance of philosophy and its principles for each person individually. In this philosophy is close to religion, the formation of artistic aesthetics.

In philosophy, each person pays attention to what corresponds to his ideals and moral rules.

It can be concluded that the subject of philosophy are phenomena, principles and objects, the appearance, existence and future of which a person cannot explain from a scientific point of view, or other points that correspond to his moral and spiritual development.

The subject of philosophy develops with the development of society. If for ancient people the relationship of man with the cosmos was important, then in the era of Christianity, the relationship between man and God became more important.

At a time when philosophy as a science was supplanted by Christian dogmas, the subjects for the study of philosophy gradually disappeared, but only until the revolutionary scientific discoveries that proved the importance of philosophy as a science followed.

With the development of science, more attention is paid to the development of man, his place in society and the world. Today, such subjects of philosophy as being, the purpose of life remain one of the most popular, they have a lot of options for studying and are perceived by a person according to his scientific and spiritual development.

1. The formation of philosophy. Myth, religion, philosophy as historical types of worldview. Features of phil-whom knowledge.

F-I, having originated in the 7-6th century. BC e. in other China, India, Greece and became a stable form of social consciousness for all subsequent centuries. For the emergence of f-and time and abstract thinking were needed. Eastern f-I wore a rac.-religious character, that is, it was not a theor. knowledge. And the Greek f-I wore a rac. character interspersed with religious and mythological beliefs. How the science of F-I was born in Europe. From this moment on, people begin to look for ways of rapprochement; all f-e systems are aimed at understanding the person himself, and consequently the improvement of his "I". Before the advent of f-and there were myths ; Mythology- the very first worldview of man. Worldview is a set of views and beliefs, assessments and norms, ideals and attitudes that determine a person's attitude to the world and are guidelines in his daily life. Mythology arose as a response to questions about the origin of the world and its structure. A myth is a fantastic reflection in the primitive consciousness of reality and the justification of the relations, attitudes, beliefs and behavior existing in society. In the myth, nature is personified, and space and time, subjective and objective, appear integral. The main function of the myth is to explain the world order and regulate relations. Religion is closely related to mythology. Religion arose later, and some myths passed into religion (the myth of Christ). Religion encompasses a system of dogmas, illusory feelings, ritual actions and church institutions designed to satisfy people's needs for faith, hope and love. The basis of the religious worldview is belief in the supernatural, in the existence of one or more gods, in some kind of "sacred" principle, which is beyond human understanding. One of the most important features of myth and religion is that they have a spiritual and practical character. F-i is a special f-my of social consciousness and has the following most important features: 1) the starting point and goal of f-i is the person, his place in the world and his attitude to this world. 2) Ph-I studies the most general foundations of socio-natural being, the universal laws of the development of the world as a whole. 3) the main means of cognition is the human mind. 4) the empirical basis of knowledge - the totality of private sciences and socio-historical practice. 5) f-i combines in the process of studying reality the epistemological approach with the value approach (where and how the acquired knowledge finds its practical implementation, and what is its value and significance).

Ph-I is a form of social consciousness associated with comprehending the essence of social and natural being, the world as a whole, the place of a person in this world, the relationship of a person to the world and the meaning of life.

2. The subject of philosophy, its historical change. The structure of philosophical knowledge.

In different eras, the subject of f-i was formed in different ways by different directions, schools and thinkers. F-I was developed mainly as a doctrine of being, of nature and of man, then as a doctrine of knowledge, comprehension of the truth, then as a doctrine of due, ideals or values. In the era of antiquity, the main interest was in ideas, forms, ethics of virtues. Middle Ages - God as the most perfect person. Renaissance is an aesthetic attitude to reality. New time - a reasonable person. Modern times are the totality of ideas (Hegel), material production (Marx), the will to power (Nietzsche). XX-XXI - the language and practice of people. At the same time, various areas of f-th knowledge were formed. Many of them, enriched by the results of new research, are included in the structure of modern f-th knowledge. There are the following areas of f-th knowledge. Ontology- the doctrine of being, the existence of objects, the world as a whole, their "beginnings" and foundations (what is being?). Gnoseology- the doctrine of the knowledge of things and phenomena, their connections and relationships, the comprehension of the truth (how does a person know the world?). Methodology - the doctrine of the methods (techniques, methods) of cognition, the correlation of different methods, the general, f-their guidelines for cognitive and practical activity (what are the methods of cognition?). Since ancient times, f-fas have begun to pay attention to man. Much later, it took shape as an independent region. philosophical anthropology - the doctrine of man, his essence, place in the world, purpose (what is a man and what is his nature?). Attention to the problems of public life led to the formation social functions(what is society?) . Interest in the problem of general patterns of social development caused the appearance f-and history. Thinkers consider the dynamics of their own ideas, ideas and teachings in f-and history. Exists axiology - the doctrine of a person's value orientations, of preferences and ideals, for the sake of which one can give up many things, and even give one's life (what is value?). This area is closely related to ethics - the doctrine of the norms and principles of moral behavior, of good and evil, the achievement of happiness and grace. Aesthetics - the area of ​​judgments about the beautiful, the forms and the possibility of its existence. Logic considers questions about the correct expression of ideas and thoughts in certain forms of connection between concepts or signs. Recently, attention has been paid praxeology as an area concentrating ideas about the practical orientation and significance of philosophical knowledge. The subject of f-i is a person in his relationship to the world, viewed through the prism of the connection between subject and object, being and cognition, value orientations in the search for the meaning of life.

3. The place and role of philosophy in culture: the main functions and significance of philosophical knowledge.

The ratio of f-and culture is very peculiar. Culture is everything that is created by man that elevates him above nature. Cicero believed that culture is not limited to Ph. However, f-i is the most important component of human culture. It is in f-and culture is given in its maximum completeness and maximum possible understanding. The most pressing problems of a person receive a final interpretation in a f-and. Actual f-I - the peak achievements of culture, the highest level of self-understanding of the person, achieved to date. The most important functions of f-and largely determine its role in the spiritual culture of society. Worldview - builds our knowledge of the world. Methodological - consists in the general orientation of the cognitive and practical activities of people., considers questions about the techniques and methods of cognitive and practical activities. Gnoseological - integrative - develops a certain, f-th picture of the world . Axiological - develops a system of values ​​defined. type of society. Ideological - develops a unified view of the world, and also substantiates and defends the interests of ODA. social groups. Not all f-s teachings turn into an ideology, but ideology underlies almost all teachings. Systematization - systematizes knowledge, allows you to identify the general in the particular. Critical - critically evaluates both actual achievements and illegitimate claims to leadership and universal significance. Explications - identification of the most common ideas, ideas, forms of experience in the foundations of social. and spirit. life-giving of people. Ethical, aesthetic, educational, etc. The significance of philosophy was already understood in the ancient world. Epicurus considered philosophy to be necessary "for the health of the soul", for "the absence of fear of the future." Philosophy communicates the human side to other activities of the human spirit, comprehends them for a person, and that philosophizing is developing a person in oneself as a single harmonious being.

4. The problem of the fundamental question of philosophy. The opposite of materialism and idealism, their forms and varieties.

At the end of the 19th century Engels in his work "Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy" formulated the main question of F-i, which has two sub-questions: What comes first - matter or consciousness? Are we capable of knowing the world? Answering this question, philosophers were divided into 2 camps: materialists and idealists. Materialists believe that matter is primary, it exists outside and independently of consciousness. Consciousness is secondary, it is derived from matter. Idealists believe that something higher, primary consciousness, a certain mind, a spiritual principle is primary. Those who recognize the primary transpersonal, world spiritual principle are referred to as representatives objective idealism(can be compared to religion) . Those thinkers who consider the personal “I” or some personal properties (sensations, perceptions, etc.) to be the beginning of everything are called subjective idealists. The extreme form of S.I. is solipsism- the point of view according to which “only I exist”, everything else is a complex of sensations. Materialism: spontaneous (antiquity), atomistic, mechanical (modern times), anthropological (Feuerbach), dialectical, scientific. In the history of knowledge there are known attempts to recognize the simultaneous existence of the material (natural) and spiritual (non-material) "principles". This position is called dualism. The question of the cognizability of the world is ambiguously solved. Materialists, as a rule, positively resolve the question of the cognizability of the world, expressing the line of optimism. Objective idealists can recognize the world as knowable, they can also deny the knowability of the world. The logic of subjective idealism leads to a negative solution to the question of the cognizability of the world.

Now, in the XI century, looking back, we can say with confidence that no other sphere of spiritual culture has had such a significant and dynamic impact on society as science. Both in our worldview and in the world of things around us, we everywhere deal with the consequences of its development. With many of them, we have grown so close that we are no longer inclined to notice them, let alone see them as special achievements.

Nothing can compare with the rates of its own growth and transformation of science. Almost no one, except historians, reads the works of even such luminaries of natural science of the last century as Alexander Humboldt, Faraday, Maxwell or Darwin. No one studies physics any more according to the works of Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, although they are almost our contemporaries. Science is all about the future.

Every scientist, even a great one, is doomed to the fact that his results will eventually be reformulated, expressed in a different language, and his ideas will be transformed. Science is alien to individualism, it calls everyone to sacrifice for the sake of a common cause, although it keeps in social memory the names of great and small creators who contributed to its development. But ideas after their publication begin to live an independent life, not subject to the will and desires of their creators. Sometimes it happens that a scientist until the end of his days cannot accept what his own ideas have become. They no longer belong to him, he is not able to keep up with their development and control their use.

It is not surprising that in our time science is often the object of fierce criticism, it is accused of all mortal sins, including the horrors of Chernobyl and the environmental crisis in general. But, firstly, criticism of this kind is only an indirect recognition of the enormous role and power of science, because it would never occur to anyone to blame modern music, painting or architecture for anything like that. And secondly, it is absurd to blame science for the fact that society is not always able to use its results for its own benefit. Matches were not made for children to play with fire.

What has already been said is enough to understand that science is a completely worthy object of study. In our time, it has come under the cross attention of several disciplines at once, including history, sociology, economics, psychology, science of science. The philosophy and methodology of science occupy a special place in this series. Science is multifaceted and multifaceted, but above all it is the production of knowledge. Science does not exist without knowledge, just as the automotive industry does not exist without the automobile. One can therefore be interested in the history of scientific institutions, the sociology and psychology of scientific collectives, but it is the production of knowledge that makes science a science. And it is from this point of view that we will approach it in the future. The philosophy of science tries to answer the following basic questions: what is scientific knowledge, how it is arranged, what are the principles of its organization and functioning, what is science as the production of knowledge, what are the patterns of formation and development of scientific disciplines, how do they differ from each other and how do they interact? ? This, of course, is by no means a complete list, but it gives a rough idea of ​​what the philosophy of science is primarily interested in.

So, we will consider science as the production of knowledge. But even from this point of view, it is something extremely multicomponent and heterogeneous. These are the experimental means necessary for the study of phenomena - instruments and installations with the help of which these phenomena are recorded and reproduced. These are the methods by which the subjects of research (fragments and aspects of the objective world, to which scientific knowledge is directed) are distinguished and cognized. These are people engaged in scientific research, writing articles or monographs. These are institutions and organizations such as laboratories, institutes, academies, scientific journals. These are knowledge systems fixed in the form of texts and filling the shelves of libraries. These are conferences, discussions, dissertation defenses, scientific expeditions. The list of this kind can go on and on, but even now the enormous heterogeneity of the listed phenomena is striking. What unites them? Is it possible to reduce all this diversity to one thing?

The simplest and fairly obvious assumption may be that science is a certain human activity, isolated in the process of division of labor and aimed at obtaining knowledge. It is worth characterizing this activity, its goals, means and products, and it will unite all the listed phenomena, for example, the activity of a carpenter combines boards, glue, varnish, a desk, a planer and much more. In other words, the thought suggests itself that to study science means to study a scientist at work, to study the technology of his activity in the production of knowledge. It is difficult to object to this.

True, to a large extent, the scientist himself studies and describes his own activities: scientific texts, for example, contain a detailed description of the experiments performed, methods for solving problems, etc. But having described the experiment, the scientist, with rare exceptions, does not try to trace exactly how he came to the idea of ​​this experiment, and if he tries, then the results of such work are no longer organically included in the content of special scientific works.

Without going into details and coarsening the picture, we can say that a scientist working in one or another special field of science, as a rule, confines himself to describing those aspects of his activity that can also be represented as a characteristic of the phenomena being studied. So, for example, when a chemist describes a method for obtaining certain compounds, this is not only a description of the activity, but also a description of the compounds themselves: such and such a substance can be obtained in such and such a way. But not everything in the activities of a scientist can be represented in this way. The procedures of scientific search in different fields of knowledge have much in common, and this already takes them beyond the narrow professional interests of one or another special science.

So, one aspect of the study of science can be the study of a scientist at work. The results of such a study can be of a normative nature, because when we describe an activity that led to success, we unwittingly propagate a positive model, and a description of an unsuccessful activity sounds like a warning.

But is it right to reduce the study of science to the description of the activities of individuals? Science is not only an activity. Activity is always personified, one can talk about the activity of a specific person or group of people, and science acts as some kind of supra-individual, transpersonal phenomenon. This is not just the activity of Galileo, Maxwell or Darwin. Of course, the works of these scientists had an impact on science, but each of them worked within the framework of the science of his time and obeyed its requirements and laws. If we somehow understand the meaning of the expressions "work in science", "influence science", "obey the requirements of science", then we have already intuitively contrasted science with the activity of an individual or a group of people and must now answer the question: what is represents this impersonal whole, peeping out from behind the back of each of its individual representatives?

Looking ahead, we can say that we are talking about the scientific traditions within which the scientist works. The strength of these traditions is recognized by the researchers themselves. Here is what our famous geographer and soil scientist B.B. Polynov writes, allegedly quoting excerpts from the diary of a foreign scientist: “Whatever I take, be it a test tube or a glass rod, whatever I approach: an autoclave or a microscope, - all this was once invented by someone, and all this makes me make certain movements and take a certain position. I feel like a trained animal, and this similarity is all the more complete because, before learning to accurately and quickly carry out the silent orders of all these things and the ghosts of the past hidden behind them, I really went through a long school of training as a student, doctoral student and doctor " And further: "No one can reproach me for the incorrect use of literary sources. The very thought of plagiarism disgusts me. And yet on my part it did not take much effort to make sure that in several dozen of my works, which made me a reputation as an original scientist and were readily cited by my colleagues and students eniki, there is not a single fact and not a single thought that would not have been foreseen, prepared or provoked in one way or another by my teachers, predecessors or wranglings of my contemporaries.

It may seem that we have before us a caricature. But B.B. Polynov himself sums up the above entries as follows: “Everything that the author of the diary wrote is nothing but the real real conditions for the creativity of many tens, hundreds of naturalists around the world. Moreover, these are the very conditions that only can guarantee the development of science, i.e. the use of the experience of the past and the further growth of an infinite number of germs of all kinds of ideas, sometimes hidden in the distant past.

So, science is an activity that is possible only thanks to tradition, or, more precisely, the multitude of traditions within which this activity is carried out. It can itself be seen as a special type of tradition transmitted in human culture. Activities and traditions are two different, albeit inextricably linked, aspects of science, requiring, generally speaking, different approaches and research methods. Of course, activities are carried out in traditions, i.e. does not exist without them, and traditions, in turn, do not exist outside of activity. But studying traditions, we describe some natural process, while acts of activity are always purposeful. They involve the choice of values ​​and goals by the subject of activity, and it is impossible to understand the activity without fixing the goal. The philosophy of science, being a discipline of the humanities, is faced here with the dilemma of explanation and understanding, which is cardinal for humanitarian knowledge.

Let's consider it in more detail. Imagine an experimenter in a laboratory, surrounded by instruments and various kinds of experimental setups. He must understand the purpose of all these devices, for him they are a kind of text that he can read and interpret in a certain way. Of course, the microscope on his desk was not invented and made by him, of course, it had been used before. Our experimenter is traditional. He, however, may object and say that he uses the microscope not at all because it was done before him, but because it suits his current goals. True, the goals are quite traditional, but our experimenter again chose them not because of their traditional nature, but because they seemed to him interesting and attractive in the current situation. All this is true, our experimenter does not deceive us. Having studied traditions, therefore, we will not yet understand activity. To do this, we need to delve into its goals and motives, to see the world through the eyes of an experimenter.

The ratio of the understanding and explanatory approach is a very complex problem not only of the philosophy of science, but also of humanitarian knowledge in general.

The analysis of science as a tradition and as an activity are two methods of analysis that complement each other. Each highlights a particular aspect of the complex whole that science is. And their combination allows you to develop a more complete picture of science.

In our time, the very nature of scientific activity has changed in comparison with the studies of the classical era. The science of small communities of scientists has been replaced by modern "big science" with its almost industrial use of complex and expensive instrumentation systems (such as large telescopes, modern systems for the separation of chemical elements, elementary particle accelerators), with a sharp increase in the number of people involved in scientific activities and serving her; with large associations of specialists in various fields, with targeted state funding of scientific programs, etc.

The functions of science in the life of society, its place in culture and its interaction with other areas of cultural creativity also change from era to era. Already in the XVII century. the emerging natural science declared its claims to the formation of dominant worldview images in culture. Acquiring ideological functions, science has become more and more active in influencing other spheres of social life, including the ordinary consciousness of people. The value of education based on the assimilation of scientific knowledge began to be taken for granted.

In the second half of the 19th century, science is increasingly being used in engineering and technology. While retaining its cultural and ideological function, it acquires a new social function - it becomes the productive force of society.

The 20th century can be characterized as an ever-expanding use of science in the most diverse areas of social life. Science is beginning to be increasingly applied in various areas of social process management, acting as the basis for qualified expert assessments and managerial decision-making. Connecting with the authorities, it really begins to influence the choice of certain paths of social development. This new function of science is sometimes characterized as its transformation into a social force. At the same time, the ideological functions of science and its role as a direct productive force are strengthened.

For a long time in the philosophy of science, mathematics was chosen as a model for studying the structure and dynamics of cognition. However, there is no pronounced layer of empirical knowledge here, and therefore, when analyzing mathematical texts, it is difficult to identify those features of the structure and functioning of the theory that are associated with its relationship to the empirical basis. That is why the philosophy of science, especially since the end of the 19th century, has increasingly focused on the analysis of natural science knowledge, which contains a variety of different types of theories and a developed empirical basis.