Individual styles of Renaissance composers. Musical art of the Renaissance

1. General trends in the development of musical art in the Renaissance
2. Music education in the Renaissance
3. Musical theory of the Renaissance. Treatises on Music.

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1. General trends in the development of musical artduring the renaissance

XIV-XVII centuries in Western Europe became a time of major social change. This time entered the history of culture under the name of the Renaissance (Renaissance). This period got its name in connection with the revival of interest in ancient art, which has become an ideal for cultural figures of modern times. Composers and musical theorists (J. Tinktoris, J. Tsarlino, Glarean and others) studied ancient Greek musical treatises; in the works of Josquin Despres, according to contemporaries, "the lost perfection of the music of the ancient Greeks was revived"; appeared in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. the opera was guided by the laws of ancient drama.

The development of the culture of the Renaissance is associated with the rise of all aspects of society. A new worldview was born - humanism (from the Latin humanus - "human"). The emancipation of creative forces led to the rapid development of science, trade, crafts, and new, capitalist relations took shape in the economy. The invention of printing contributed to the spread of education. The great geographical discoveries and the heliocentric system of the world by N. Copernicus changed the ideas about the Earth and the Universe.

During the Renaissance, art, including music, enjoyed great social prestige and was extremely widespread. During the Renaissance, almost all types of art reached an extraordinary flowering. The Renaissance has uneven chronological boundaries in different countries of Europe. In Italy, it begins in the 14th century, in the Netherlands it begins in the 15th century, and in France, Germany and England, its signs are most clearly manifested in the 16th century. At the same time, the development of ties between different creative schools, the exchange of experience between musicians who moved from country to country, worked in different chapels, is becoming a sign of the times and allows us to talk about trends common to the entire era.

The ideas of the revival of the ancient ideals of humanism and the loss of their position by the church spread to the entire cultural life, significantly affecting musical education. The growth of interest in the sciences led to the spread of education in various fields. If in the Middle Ages a religious tradition prevailed, almost completely suppressing the secular one (which existed mainly in the form of minstrel culture), and holding folk under a ban, then in the Renaissance, church music and the religious branch of musical education, while continuing to function, lost their position. The secular branch of music-making and musical education assumed an ever-increasing character. The secular culture of music-making, in turn, had close ties with the folk culture. So, for example, minstrels, who combined folk and secular traditions in their work, in the Renaissance often began to stay at the courts of the highest nobility, their work became the basis for the development of secular music making. During the Renaissance, music performed not only a hedonistic function, although it was also important in secular music-making. The goal of musical education, as well as any knowledge of art, was put forward, as in the era of Antiquity, the moral perfection of man. By this time, the beginning of music printing, the flourishing of amateur music-making. Also at this time, the process of rethinking the social status of music began. Styles and genres of music began to differ depending on their social purpose. "Folk" and "learned" music appeared, for "inexperienced lovers" and for "refined ears", for "seigneurs and princes". With all the obviousness, there was a tendency for the elitism of musical education. In 1528, B. Castiglione's famous treatise "The Courtier" was written - a kind of code of high-society behavior. It pointed out that the possession of singing and a musical instrument is a sign of spiritual refinement and a truly secular education. The increasing role of the secular tradition of music education led to a change in its types. If the church tradition relied mainly on choral singing, then the secular tradition is characterized by an interest in musical instruments. Singing was not forced out, but took various forms, including secular vocal solo and ensemble music-making. In the Renaissance, monophonic singing is replaced by polyphonic, double and triple compositions of choirs appear, polyphonic writing of a strict style reaches its heights, the division of the choir into four main choral parts is firmly established: sopranos, altos, tenors, basses. Along with music intended for choral singing in the church, secular choral music (motets, ballads, madrigals, chansons) is asserting its rights.

The process of learning to play musical instruments, which separated from vocal music, took place rapidly and quickly. Instrumental music-making has gained independence as an original field of human activity. Among the main musical instruments are the lute, harp, flute, oboe, trumpet, organs of various types (positives, portables), varieties of harpsichord. The violin was a folk instrument, but with the development of new stringed bowed instruments such as the viola, it is the violin that becomes one of the leading musical instruments. Another variety of the viola, the viola da gamba, evolved into the cello. Learning to play musical instruments, which began in Western Europe in the 14th century and continued not only throughout the Renaissance, but also in subsequent ones, was an expression of the spiritual need of people that church music ceased to satisfy. (website) In general, the following characteristic features of the musical culture of the Renaissance can be identified: the rapid development of secular music (widespread of secular genres: madrigals, frottol, villanelle, French "chanson", English and German polyphonic songs), its onslaught on the old church musical culture , which existed in parallel with the secular;

Realistic trends in music: new plots, images corresponding to humanistic views and, as a result, new means of musical expression;

Folk melody as the leading beginning of a musical work. Folk songs are used as cantus firmus (the main, unchanging tenor melody in polyphonic works) and in polyphonic music (including church music). The melody becomes smoother, more flexible, melodious, it is a direct expression of human experiences;

Powerful development of polyphonic music and "strict style" (in other words, "classical vocal polyphony", as it is focused on vocal and choral performance). Strict style implies mandatory adherence to established rules. Masters of strict style mastered the technique of counterpoint, imitation and canon. Strict writing was based on a system of diatonic church modes. Consonances dominate in harmony, the use of dissonances was strictly limited by special rules. The major and minor modes and the clock system are added. The thematic basis was Gregorian chant, but secular melodies were also used. It is mainly focused on the polyphony of D. Palestrina and O. Lasso;

Formation of a new type of musician - a professional who received a comprehensive special musical education. The concept of "composer" appears for the first time;

Formation of national music schools (English, Dutch, Italian, German, etc.);

The appearance of the first performers on the lute, viol, violin, harpsichord, organ; flourishing of amateur music-making;

The advent of typography.

2.Music education in the Renaissance

Renaissance marked the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, and above all, to the culture of the early bourgeois society, which originated in Italian cities and then developed in the cities of other European countries. The culture of the Renaissance had a humanistic character and affirmed the ideal of a harmoniously developed human personality. The Renaissance put an end to the asceticism of the Middle Ages, adopting the cultural achievements of Antiquity, filling them with new meaning.

In Antiquity, art was used primarily for educational purposes. Music, due to its moral orientation, was considered an important means and goal of social education, and human musicality was seen as a socially valuable and defining quality of a person. Art education at that time was considered the basis of education in general. A synonym for the term "musical" was the term "educated". Music, literature, grammar, drawing and gymnastics were the main content of education, designed to develop the receptivity of the soul, the morality of aspirations and feelings, as well as the strength and beauty of the body. Public education among the Greeks was inseparable from aesthetic education, which was based on music. Music was understood by them as a universal and priority means of public education and its goal (Spartans, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle). Thus, Pythagoras considered the cosmos to be “musical,” just as the state was “musically” (that is, harmoniously) well-arranged and subordinate to the “correct” tune. And since music reflects harmony, the highest goal of man is the task of making his body and soul musical. The cult of harmony, bodily and spiritual beauty, strength, health, sensory perception of life becomes the canon of art in the Renaissance. This was of decisive importance for the development of forms of aesthetic education. The ideal of the era was a versatile educated artist - a liberated creative person, richly gifted, striving to affirm beauty and harmony in the world around him. For example, in the Vittorino de Feltre school of Mantua, young people learned to feel musical harmony; in education, great importance was attached to the ability to sing. The founder of the school believed that music develops a sense of time, and believed that education consists, first of all, in the development of sensitivity and perception, and therefore the aesthetic element played a huge role in his method of education.

New ideas were reflected in a number of treatises on education, each of which certainly stipulated the meaning and role of art in education. Among them are “On noble morals and free sciences” by Paulo Vergerio, “On the upbringing of children and their good morals” by Mateo Vegio, “On the order of teaching and learning” by Battisto Guarino, “Treatise on free education” by Eneo Silvio Piccolomini and others. In the circles of high society, along with reading and writing, secular etiquette required the ability to play several musical instruments, speak 5-6 languages. From Baldasar Castiglione’s treatise “On the Courtier” (XVI century), already mentioned above, you can find out what requirements were placed on nobles in the field of musical education: “... I am not satisfied with a courtier if he is not a musician, does not know how to read music from a sheet and knows nothing about different instruments, for, if you think carefully, you can not find a more respectable and laudable rest from work and a remedy for sick souls than music. Music is especially needed at courts, because, in addition to entertainment from boredom, it gives a lot for the pleasure of ladies, whose souls, tender and soft, are easily imbued with harmony and filled with tenderness. Then we talk about what kind of music is beautiful: that which is sung confidently and in a good manner, singing solo to the viola, playing keyboards or playing four bowed instruments. Nowhere, however, Castiglione praises choral polyphonic music, considering, obviously, that it has mainly only a special purpose - in the church, at official celebrations.

The secular orientation of education was manifested in the expansion of the scope and content of musical education in parochial schools, orphanages, as well as the "conservatories" that appeared at that time - specialized shelters where musically gifted children could study. The first "conservatories" appeared in Venice. They took care of the upbringing of orphans, gave them primary education. The boys were taught various crafts, and the girls were taught singing: the numerous temples of Italy required many choristers for church choirs. In 1537, in Naples, the Spanish priest Giovanni Tapia built the first music conservatory "Santa Maria di Loreto", which served as a model for subsequent ones. (website) The influx of students was so great that there was a need to open three more "conservatories" in the same city. During the 16th and 17th centuries, many such shelters were opened in Italy. Gradually, the teaching of music began to occupy the main place in them, not only pupils of the orphanage could study, but, for a fee, outside students as well. The name "conservatory", having lost its original meaning, began to mean a musical educational institution.

One of the important forms of education of that time were singing schools at Catholic churches - metriza. Metriza (French maitre - teacher) is a musical boarding school in France and the Netherlands, which trained church choristers. The first metriz were known as early as the 8th century. The system of education in such schools was formed back in the Middle Ages: education was carried out from early childhood and, along with general education subjects, included singing, playing the organ, and studying musical theory. Since the 16th century, learning to play other musical instruments has been added. About 20-30 singers were trained in each metriz under the guidance of a choirmaster (maоtre de chapelle). Metriza played a significant role in the spread of professional music education. Many outstanding French and Dutch polyphonic composers G. Dufay, J. Obrecht, J. Okeghem and others studied in metris.

The main feature of humanistic pedagogy was the focus on the formation of an educated, morally perfect and physically developed individual with a clearly defined social orientation, which was manifested in the practical nature of musical education. The main forms of music-making were: church, salon, school and home. Naturally, the level and possibilities of musical education in different strata of society were different. Comprehensive education, harmonious development were available mainly to the social minority. In the upper social strata of society, the practical nature of musical education is gradually degenerating into practicality, causing a pragmatic attitude towards music, due to considerations of fashion, prestige, utility, etc. Church singing, folk festivals, carnivals still remained forms of mass familiarization with music. In general, the pedagogy of the Renaissance brought to the fore the awakening of students' keen interest in knowledge, the development of their practical skills and abilities. Schools appeared where such an atmosphere of learning was created, which turned the process of cognition into a joyful and interesting activity for the student himself. During this period, visualization of all kinds, games, lessons in the bosom of wildlife were widely used. A huge contribution to general pedagogy was made by the early utopian socialists T. More (1478-1535) and T. Campanella (1568-1639), E. Rotterdam (1466-1536), Fr. Rabelais (1494-1553). Of great importance for the musical development, education and dissemination of musical works in different countries was the invention of musical printing and the release of musical publications from the very first years of the 16th century. Ottaviano Petrucci in Italy begins to publish the masses of Josquin Despres, Obrecht, and then the works of other contemporaries. His first exemplary musical edition was a collection of chansons called Harmoniae musices Odhecaton. It includes various author's adaptations of the same songs (for example, "Fors settlement"), including works by Bunois, Obrecht, Pierre de La Rue, Agricola, Giselin. Subsequently, Petrucci released a number of collections of Italian polyphonic songs - frottol, which were widely used in society. Ottaviano Scotto and Antonio Gardane in Venice, Pierre Attenian in Paris, Tilman Susato in Antwerp also became major music publishers of their time.

• Musical theory of the Renaissance. Treatises on Music

In the Renaissance, music theory stepped forward, putting forward a number of remarkable theorists, including Johannes Tinctoris (author of 12 treatises on music), Ramos di Pareja, Heinrich Loriti from Glarus ( Glarean)(the founder of the doctrine of melody), Josephfo Carlino(one of the founders of the science of harmony). The doctrine of modes, the popularization of musical knowledge, judgments about the greatest composers of that time and the course of musical development in the 15th-16th centuries, the awakening interest in the peculiarities of folk art, the discussion of the problems of musical performance - these areas were covered by musical science from the end of the 15th and throughout the 16th century. . All major theorists were active in teaching.

Johannes (John) Tinktoris(c. 1435 - 1511) - Franco-Flemish musical theorist and composer. He studied "liberal arts" and law, was the mentor of the boys' choir of Chartres Cathedral. From 1472 he served at the court of the Neapolitan king Ferdinand I, was the musical tutor of his daughter Beatrice, who in 1476 became Queen of Hungary. Tinctoris dedicated three musical-theoretical treatises to his student Beatrice, including the well-known treatise Determinant of Music. It is known that in 1487 Ferdinand I sent Tinctoris to France to King Charles VIII with instructions to recruit singers for the Royal Chapel. Even during his lifetime, Tinctoris enjoyed great fame, he was mentioned among the most famous musicians. 12 treatises of Tinctoris have survived, the most famous of which was the treatise "Determinant of Music" ("Terminorum musicae diffinitorum", ca. 1472-73)

The first systematic musical-terminological dictionary in the history of music containing about 300 terms. We list the rest of the works of Tinctoris:

The treatise "The totality of the impact of music" ("Complexus effectuum musices, ca. 1473-74) was a classification and a colorful description of the purpose of music;

The treatise "Musical proportions" ("Proportionale musices", ca. 1473-74) developed the ancient Pythagorean doctrine of the numerical basis of musical art. Bringing the complexity of mensural rhythmic relationships to the limit, Tinktoris came to rhythms in the proportions 7:4, 8:5, 17:8, 13:5, 14:5 (coinciding with the serial rhythm of the 20th century).

- “The Book of Imperfection of Musical Notes” (“Liber imperfectionum notarum musicalium”, ca. 1474-75); (website)

The Treatise on the Rules of Note Values ​​(Tractatus de regulari valore notarum, c. 1474-75) and the Treatise on Notes and Rests (Tractatus de notis et pausis, c. 1474-75) are devoted to the metrorhythmic organization of music.

- “Book on the nature and properties of modes” (“Liber de natura et proprietate tonorum”, 1476)

On the structure of the modal system;

- "Book on the art of counterpoint" ("Liber de arte contrapuncti", 1477)

The fundamental doctrine of contrapuntal composition, which outlines the "8 general rules of counterpoint", distinguishes between "simple" and "flowery" counterpoint, the difference between a work with a stable text and with an improvised one, etc.);

- "Treatise on alterations" ("Tractatus alterationum", after 1477);

- "Article on musical points" ("Scriptum super punctis musicalibus", after 1477) - on rhythm;

- "Description of the hand" ("Guidon's") ("Expositio manus", after 1477) - about the sounds of the musical system;

- “On the invention and application of music” (“De inventione et usu musicae”, 1487) - about singing and singers, instruments and performers.
One of the first Tinctoris introduced the concept of "composer", that is, the author of the work, "who wrote some new cantus."

One of the greatest musical scholars of the Renaissance - Glarean(1488 - 1563), he owns the treatise "The Twelve Strings" (1547). Glarean was born in Switzerland and studied art at the University of Cologne. Having become a master of liberal arts, he taught poetry, music, mathematics, Greek and Latin in Basel. Here in Basel he met Erasmus of Rotterdam. Glarean argued that music, like painting, should be outside of religious didactics, deliver, above all, pleasure, be the "mother of pleasure." Glarean justifies the advantages of monodic music in relation to polyphony, while he talks about two types of musicians: phonas and symphonists. The first have a natural tendency to compose a melody, the second - to develop a melody for two, three or more voices. He substantiates the idea of ​​the unity of music and poetry, instrumental performance and text. In music theory, Glarean substantiated the concepts of major and minor, and talked about the twelve-tone system. Also, in addition to the problems of music theory, the theorist considered the history of music, its development, but only within the framework of the Renaissance, ignoring the music of the Middle Ages. Glarean studied the work of contemporary composers Josquin Despres, Obrecht, Pierre de la Rue.

Ramos di Pareja(1440-1490) - Spanish theorist, composer and teacher. He worked mainly in Italy. In the 1470s he was known as an authoritative music theorist and teacher. His pen belongs to the treatise "Practical Music" ("Musica practica"). This treatise gave rise to a long controversy and criticism from conservative Italian theorists. Ramos di Pareja expressed his views on the doctrine of modes and consonances. He contrasted the medieval system of six-step scales (hexachords) with an eight-step major scale, ranked thirds and sixths as consonances (according to the old ideas, only octaves and fifths belonged to consonances). In the field of the doctrine of rhythm and notation, Ramos di Pareja argued with his contemporaries Tinctoris and Gafuri, who were supporters of mensural notation.

Outstanding Italian theorist and composer Josephfo Carlino(1517-1590) was a member of the Franciscan order, studied philology, history, mathematics. Tsarlino studied music with the famous composer Adrian Villaerta (Villart). Zarlino was associated with prominent artists of his time, in particular Titian and Tintoretto. Zarlino himself was widely known, he was a member of the Venice Academy of Glory. In 1565, Zarlino became musical director of the St. Brand. This important post allowed Zarlino to engage not only in composition, but also in writing theoretical works, including "Establishments of Harmony" (1588), "Proof of Harmony" (1571), "Musical Additions" (1588). The most significant of Zarlino's works is the treatise "Establishment of Harmony", in which he expressed the basic principles of the musical aesthetics of the Renaissance. Like most thinkers of this era, Zarlino was an ardent admirer of ancient aesthetics. His writings contain numerous references to Plato, Aristotle, Aristoxenus, Quintilian, Boethius. Zarlino makes extensive use of Aristotle's teachings on form and matter both in interpreting a number of musical problems and in constructing the structure of his treatises.

Central to the aesthetics of Zarlino is the doctrine of the nature of musical harmony. He claims that the whole world is filled with harmony and that the very soul of the world is harmony. In this regard, he pantheistically interprets the idea of ​​the unity of micro- and macrocosmos. In Tsarlino's treatise, the idea, characteristic of Renaissance aesthetics, of the proportionality of the objective harmony of the world and the subjective harmony inherent in the human soul, is systematically developed. In substantiating this idea, Zarlino relies on the doctrine of temperaments that was popular in his time. He uses the idea, coming from Cardano and Telesio, that a person's temperament is created by a certain ratio of material elements, such as cold and hot, wet and dry, etc. The proportional ratio of these elements underlies both human passions and musical harmony. Therefore, human passions are a reflection of the “physique” of harmony, they are its likeness. On this basis, Zarlino tries to explain the nature of the impact of music on the human psyche. Zarlino's treatise pays great attention to the personality of the composer. It requires from him not only knowledge of musical theory, grammar, arithmetic, rhetoric, but also practical skills in the field of music. His ideal was a musician who equally mastered both the theory and practice of music.

In his treatise, Zarlino puts forward a new classification of art, which diverged from the concepts traditional for the aesthetics of the Renaissance. As a rule, the leading role in this era was assigned to painting, while music was recognized as a subordinate art. Tsarlino, breaking the established systems of classification of the arts, put music in the first place. Developing the traditional doctrine of modes, Zarlino gave an aesthetic characterization of major and minor, defining the major triad as joyful and light, and the minor as sad and melancholy. Thus, the recognition of major and minor as the main emotional poles of musical harmony was finally established in the European musical consciousness. The aesthetics of Tsarlino is the highest point in the development of the musical theory of the Renaissance and, at the same time, its result and completion. It is no coincidence that even during his lifetime, Tsarlino received wide recognition from his contemporaries.

Bibliography:

1. Alekseev A.D. History of piano art. Parts 1 and 2. - M., 1988.
2. Bakhtin M. M. Creativity of Francois Rabelais and folk culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - 2nd ed. - M., 1990.
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4. Gruber R.I. Musical culture of the ancient world. - L., 1937.
5. Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Music of the Renaissance. - M., 1985.
6. Krasnova O. B. Encyclopedia of Art of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - Olma-Press, 2002.
7. Losev A.F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance. - M.: Thought, 1978.
8. Musical aesthetics of the Western European Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 1966.
9. Fedorovich E.N. History of musical education. - Yekaterinburg, 2003.

In 1501, the Venetian printer Ottaviano Petrucci published Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, the first major collection of secular music. It was a revolution in the dissemination of music, and also contributed to the fact that the Franco-Flemish style became the dominant musical language of Europe in the next century, since, as an Italian, Petrucci mainly included the music of Franco-Flemish composers in his collection. Subsequently, he published many works and Italian composers, both secular and spiritual. In 1516 Andrea Antico, a Roman Venetian printer, published a collection of frottols for keyboards.

By the 18th century, there were more than 400 metris in France. During the bourgeois revolution in 1791 they were abolished.

The aesthetics of the Renaissance is connected with the grandiose revolution that takes place in this era in all areas of public life: in the economy, ideology, culture, science and philosophy. By this time, the flourishing of urban culture, the great geographical discoveries, which immensely expanded the horizons of man, the transition from craft to manufactory.

The revolutionary development of the productive forces, the disintegration of feudal class and guild relations that fettered production, lead to the liberation of the individual, create the conditions for his free and universal development. Undoubtedly, all this could not but affect the nature of the worldview. In the Renaissance, there is a process of radical breaking of the medieval system of views on the world and the formation of a new, humanistic, ideology. This process is also reflected in musical aesthetics. Already the XIV century was fraught with symptoms of the awakening of a new aesthetic worldview. The art and aesthetics of Ars nova, the treatises of John de Groheo and Marchetto of Padua gradually shook the traditional system of medieval musical theory. Here the theological view of music was undermined, based on the recognition of some kind of heavenly music that is not perceived by the senses. However, the centuries-old tradition of medieval musical theory was not completely destroyed. It took another century for the musical aesthetic to finally break free from the traditional patterns that fettered it.

The musical aesthetics of the Renaissance in the interpretation of the question of the purpose of music is based on real practice, characterized by the extraordinary development of music in public life. At this time, in the cities of Italy, France, Germany, hundreds of musical circles are formed, in which they enthusiastically engage in composition or playing various musical instruments. Possession of music and knowledge of it become essential elements of secular culture and secular education. The famous Italian writer Baldazar Castiglione in his treatise "On the Courtier" (1518) writes that a person cannot be a courtier "if he is not a musician, cannot read music from a sheet and knows nothing about different instruments." The extraordinary prevalence of music in the civil life of the 16th century is evidenced by the painting of this time. In numerous paintings depicting the private life of the nobility, we constantly meet hundreds of people engaged in music: singing, playing, dancing, improvising, etc.

The first culture of the Renaissance arose and developed in Italy. The centuries of the Renaissance are marked by the powerful development of folk poetry and music, with the richest traditions of songwriting in such genres as lauda, ​​frottola, vilanella playing the main role. An equally popular genre in everyday urban music-making was kachchia, which usually depicted a juicy genre scene using the usual intonations in the text and music - up to the cries of peddlers and sellers. Kachchiya was often accompanied by a round dance. The Italian ballad is also a common genre of song and dance lyrics associated with solo choral performance (in France at that time, the virelet genre had similar features). Folk-song intonations, a certain weight of the melodic principle, ingenuity of texture - these qualities of secular everyday music also penetrate into sacred music, up to polyphonic masses.

The melodious and melodic nature of the music was due to the fact that in Italy the traditions of solo and ensemble music playing on stringed bowed instruments developed rather quickly. In general, the widespread use of instrumental music contributed to the formation of a homophonic warehouse and functional harmony.

Before the violin appeared in the musical circles of Italy (in the last quarter of the 16th century) and the production of violins by the Cremonese masters Amati, Stradivari, Guarneri and others began to develop, the lute was especially popular (the most famous lute composer was Francesco Milano), the viola, the Spanish guitar , theorbo (large bass lute).

Violin craftsmanship was first formed in the works of B. Donati, L. Viadan, G. Giacomelli (he was famous for his skill of long bowing and legato technique). A new step in the development of violin performance is associated with the work of C. Monteverdi, who develops the passage technique, uses tremolo, pizzicato, enriches the dynamics with polar contrasts pp and ff.

A great revival was observed in the field of organ and harpsichord performance. From the 40s. XVI century, the number of organ collections sharply increases, a whole galaxy of outstanding organists appears - Villaerte, Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Claudio Merulo, Cavazzoni. These masters lay the foundations of Italian organ art and create genres of instrumental music - ricercar, canzone, toccata.

Harpsichord performance makes extensive use of everyday dances, arrangements of popular secular songs. An outstanding composer-improviser on the organ and clavier was Girolamo Frescobaldi, in whose work whole collections of harpsichord music appeared - dance cycles.

The Italian school of composing is also represented by the activities of professional polyphonic composers - Adrian Villaerta and his students Ciprian de Rore, Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Their creative heritage is diverse and mainly consists of vocal polyphonic works - many dozens of masses, spiritual and secular madrigals, motets, which were performed mainly by the choir a capella.

The powerful development of polyphony in the Netherlands is explained by the richness of folk polyphony and the presence of special schools-dormitories of choristers (metris) at the cathedrals of wealthy Dutch cities.

Several generations of composers belonged to the Dutch polyphonic school. Their activities took place not only in the Netherlands, which at that time covered the territory of modern Belgium, Luxembourg, south-west of Holland and northern France (hence the other name of the school - Franco-Flemish). Major representatives of the Dutch school worked fruitfully in Rome (Dufay, Obrecht, Joskin) and other cities (Villaert, Rore - in Venice, Isaac - in Austria and Germany, Benchois - in Dijon at the Burgundian court).

The Dutch school summarized the centuries-old development of polyphony in all European countries. Although church music certainly occupied a leading place in the work of these masters, nevertheless

However, along with spiritual works, composers wrote many secular polyphonic songs, which reflected the rich world of ideas and feelings, characteristic of the Renaissance.

The most monumental genre in the work of the Dutch polyphonists was the mass, in which the quintessence of the principles of strict style polyphony took place. However, the activity of each master reveals innovative features associated with the search for a way out of the established expressive canons. Reliance on the existing song and dance material, the mutual influence of spiritual and secular genres leads to the gradual separation of the melodic voice in polyphony, to the formation of a chord vertical and functional thinking.

The crowning achievement of Dutch polyphony in the 16th century was the work of Orlando Lasso. It was in his work that the widest genre interests of the Renaissance were concentrated: he paid tribute to almost all the vocal forms of his time - madrigal, mass, motet, French chanson and even German polyphonic song. The composer's works are saturated with life-truthful images, have a bright melody, a varied rhythm in relief, a consistently developed harmonic plan, which ensured their extraordinary popularity (they were repeatedly used by other composers for lute and organ arrangements).

The development of Renaissance tendencies and the formation of French national culture were already outlined in the XIV century. The outstanding representatives of the art of the early Renaissance in French music were Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaux, who left a great legacy in the genres of virelay, le, rondo ballads.

Deeply vital and realistic was the chanson genre most characteristic of French musical art, which is a polyphonic song form with secular text and usually folk-everyday melody. It was in this genre that new Renaissance features were most clearly manifested in content, plot, and features of expressive means.

The French chanson of the 15th-16th centuries is a kind of "encyclopedia" of French life of that time. Its content is varied and can be narrative, lyrical, intimate, sad, humorous, descriptive, gallant. The variety of their scales is also characteristic - from several measures to 42 pages.

The simplicity and immediacy of expressive means, the periodic structure with certain endings on D and T, the technique of singing, which is then picked up by the whole ensemble, are typical features of the genre, the music of which sometimes resembles a folk dance, a lyrical-epic tune or a perky street city song - a prototype of the future vaudeville. For chanson music, the accentuation of the rhythmic basis is characteristic, sometimes it is characterized by a couplet warehouse or a circular rondo-likeness, folk instruments can be used to accompany it.

The most outstanding composer of the French Renaissance was Clement Janequin, whose work reflected subtle love lyrics (in songs based on the texts of the poet Ronsard), and the expression of moods of sadness and sorrow, and scenes of folk fun full of life and movement. In his legacy, special attention is drawn to large choral fantasy songs of a programmatic nature, full of ingenuity and witty finds in the field of choral writing. In them, Zhanequin colorfully displayed the life and way of life of his time. The most famous are "Battle", "Hunting", "Birdsong", "Street cries of Paris".

In addition to over 200 songs, Janequin wrote both motets and masses. But in the field of music for the Catholic cult, he boldly uses folk melodies, intones spiritual texts to the fanfare turns of military music, and introduces dance rhythms.

To a large extent, such treatment of folk song and dance material was characteristic of many composers of the Renaissance, who combined in their work an interest in spiritual and secular genres, which led to the final separation of secular music into the field of artistic independence and professionalism.

Chapter 1 Features of musical culture and art of the Renaissance

1.1 Philosophical and aesthetic features of the culture of the Renaissance

The Renaissance, or Renaissance (fr. renaissance), is a turning point in the history of European peoples, a time of great discoveries. The Renaissance marks the beginning of a new stage in the history of world culture. This stage, as noted by F. Engels, was the greatest progressive upheaval of all experienced by mankind up to that time. And, indeed, the Renaissance brought with it significant changes in various areas of the economy, science, culture, opened a new way of understanding the world and determined the place of man in it.

In Italy, new trends appeared already at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, in other European countries - in the 15th-16th centuries. This time is characterized by: the transition from feudalism to capitalism, geographical discoveries, trade, personal enterprise, the liberation of man from class restrictions. And also in the Renaissance, modern science, especially natural science, is born. Suffice it to recall the brilliant scientific conjectures of Leonardo da Vinci, the foundation of Francis Bacon, the astronomical theories of Copernicus, the geographical discoveries of Columbus and Magellan.

Undoubtedly, all this could not but affect the nature of the worldview. The Renaissance is a revolution, first of all, in the system of values, in the assessment of everything that exists and in relation to it. There is a conviction that a person is the highest value, the philosophy of humanism is born. Humanism puts forward a completely new interpretation of aesthetic categories, which has grown on the basis of a new understanding of the world.

One of the central categories was the concept of "harmony". The aesthetics of the Renaissance develops a different idea of ​​harmony, based on a new understanding of nature, being and man. If the Middle Ages saw in harmony a simple imprint of the ideal, creative principle, divine beauty, then in the aesthetic consciousness of the Renaissance, harmony appears, first of all, as the development of the creative potentials of nature itself, as a dialectical unity of the bodily and spiritual, ideal and material.

Humanists searched for the ideal of a harmonious person in antiquity, and ancient Greek and Roman art served as a model for their artistic creativity. However, speaking about the aesthetics of the Renaissance, it is necessary to note the fact that, despite its ancient support, it still differed from it. Renaissance aesthetics preaches the imitation of nature no worse than the ancient one, but peering into these revivalist theories of imitation, one can also notice that in the foreground it is not so much nature as the artist, his personality, his feelings. First, the artist, on the basis of his own aesthetic taste, selects certain processes of nature, and only then subjects them to artistic processing. The theoreticians of the Renaissance can trace the following comparison: the artist must create as God created the world, and even more perfect than that.

Thus, the Renaissance, using the lessons of antiquity, introduced innovations. He did not bring back to life all ancient genres, but only those that were in tune with the aspirations of his time and culture. The Renaissance combined a new reading of antiquity with a new reading of Christianity. The Renaissance brought these two fundamental principles of European culture closer together.

God has not determined man's place in the hierarchy, Pico says in his famous Oration on the Dignity of Man: you had of your own accord, according to your will and your decision. The image of other creations is determined within the limits of the laws we have established. But you, not constrained by any limits, will determine your image according to your decision, in the power of which I leave you. Here, the Italian thinker puts a person at the center of the world, this is a person who does not have his own special nature, he must form it himself, like everything that surrounds it.

So, the main thing in the Renaissance is the promotion and approval of the human personality in culture and society, which results in various forms of revivalist anthropocentrism. Anthropocentrism brought to the fore not just a person, but a person as an active, active principle. As a result of all this affirmation of a creative, active material principle, a new image of a person gradually began to emerge, a new type of him - “homo faber” - “man-creator”, “man-creator”. It is in it that the formation of the foundations of the new European sense of personality takes place - an autonomous individualistic personality, conscious of its own value, active and in need of freedom. From this moment on, the human personality, and not the world, not the whole, for the first time becomes the starting point for the formation of a system for perceiving the world.

With particular brightness, the signs of a new worldview appeared and were then established in artistic creativity, in the progressive movement of various arts, for which the “revolution of minds” that the Renaissance produced turned out to be extremely important.

In the Renaissance, art played an exceptional role in culture and to a large extent determined the face of the era. There is no doubt that humanism in its "revivalist" understanding poured tremendous fresh energy into the art of its time, inspired artists to search for new themes, and largely determined the nature of the images and the content of their works. Medieval culture was replaced by a new, secular, humanistic culture free from church dogma and scholasticism.

The art of the Renaissance is characterized by the assertion of the principles of realism and humanism in the literature, theater, and fine arts. The art of the Renaissance is, first of all, a secular art that arose on the basis of humanism, which displaces religious ideas and arouses interest in real life, reveals the individual identity of the individual and reveals the socially typical and characteristic qualities of a person.

All major art forms - painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture, music - are changing tremendously. An analysis of the cultural monuments of the Renaissance testifies to the departure from many of the most important principles of the feudal worldview. In the creator of a work of art, who is gradually freeing himself from church ideology, the most valued is a sharp artistic view of things, professional independence, special skills, and his creations acquire a self-sufficient, and not a sacred character.

A characteristic feature of the art of the Renaissance was an unprecedented flourishing of realistic painting. The realistic portrait of the Renaissance is associated with the works of such famous artists as Jan van Eyck, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Dürer, Titian. The portraits are permeated with the pathos of the affirmation of the individual, the consciousness that the diversity and brightness of individuals is a necessary feature of a normal developing society. It was in the Renaissance that painting for the first time reveals the possibilities inherent in it for a wide coverage of life, the image of human activity and the living environment surrounding him. Medieval asceticism and contempt for everything earthly are now being replaced by an avid interest in the real world, in man, in the consciousness of the beauty and grandeur of nature.

It should be noted that the development of science was of great importance for painting, as well as for art in general. In art, the paths of scientific and artistic comprehension of the world and man begin to intertwine. The true image of the world and man had to be based on their knowledge, therefore, the cognitive principle played a particularly important role in the art of this time. Passion for science contributed to the mastery of human anatomy, the development of a realistic perspective, the effective transmission of the air environment, the skill of building angles, all that was necessary for painters to truly depict a person and the reality surrounding him. A new system of artistic vision of the world is being developed, based on trust in human sensory perceptions, primarily visual ones. To portray as we see, in unity with the environment - this is the initial principle of the Renaissance artists.

In the period of the late Renaissance, this was supplemented by the development of a system of techniques that give direct emotional expressiveness to a brushstroke, mastery of the transmission of the effects of consecration, comprehension of the principles of light-air perspective. The creators of the theory of perspective are such famous artists as Masaccio, Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci. The discovery of perspective was of no small importance; it helped to expand the range of depicted phenomena, to include space, landscape, and architecture in painting.

The progressive humanistic content of the culture of the Renaissance was also vividly expressed in theatrical art, which was significantly influenced by ancient drama. He is characterized by an interest in the inner world of a person endowed with features of a powerful individuality. The distinctive features of the theatrical art of the Renaissance was the development of the traditions of folk art, life-affirming pathos, a bold combination of tragic and comic, poetic and buffoon-areal elements. Such is the theater of Italy, Spain, England.

In architecture, the ideals of life-affirming humanism, the desire for a harmoniously clear beauty of forms, affected with no less force than in other forms of art and caused a decisive turn in the development of architecture. The appeal to the classical tradition played a particularly important role. It manifested itself not only in the rejection of Gothic forms and the revival of the ancient order system, but also in the classical proportionality of proportions, in the development of a centric type of buildings in temple architecture with an easily visible interior space.

Secular buildings were widely developed, these are various city buildings - town halls, houses of merchant guilds, universities, market fountains. At the same time, along with architecture that serves the social needs of the city, a completely new type of architecture is emerging compared to the Middle Ages, the dwelling of a wealthy burgher - a palazzo, which with extraordinary ease reflects the spirit of the festive atmosphere reigning in the palaces of the aristocrats of that time. Thus, art in the Renaissance entered a new stage of development, in which it sought to cognize and display the real world, its beauty, richness, diversity through new methods and techniques.

1.2 The place of music in the Renaissance art system

The general laws of the development of art, a new philosophical and aesthetic understanding of the essence and nature of harmony, characteristic of the Renaissance, also appeared in music. Like other forms of art of that time, music is also characterized by an active upsurge of creative forces, humanistic tendencies.

It should be noted that music during this period occupies a special place in the system of arts, yielding the dominant place only to painting. According to Leonardo da Vinci, music was just "the younger sister of painting" and even served her. “Painting surpasses music and dominates it”, “Music is the servant of painting”.

One cannot but agree with the definition of a great artist, music really occupied far from the first place in the system of arts, but, nevertheless, it played a huge role in the culture of the Renaissance, left an imprint on subsequent development, both in the field of musical culture and art in general . The musical culture of the Renaissance is a kind of transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, to an era in which this art sounds and is perceived in a new way.

Music possessed, perhaps, especially broad possibilities of social influence; more than other arts, it was all-pervading: an invariable part of the life of ordinary people, the property of many groups, which significantly distinguishes it from the music of the Middle Ages. The departure from the medieval tradition is most noticeable in Ramis da Pareja's treatise "Practical Music". Ramis says: “Let no one be afraid of either the greatness of philosophy, or the complexity of arithmetic, or the intricacies of proportions. its task is to teach not only philosophers or mathematicians, anyone who is familiar with the foundations of grammar will understand this work of ours. Here both a mouse and an elephant can swim alike; and both Daedalus and Icarus can fly by. In this treatise, Ramis sharply criticizes medieval music, says that theorists wrote their compositions only for musicians - professionals and scientists, while music, in his opinion, should cover a wider segment of the population. Undoubtedly, the work of Ramis had a significant impact on his contemporaries, the traditions of the Middle Ages were greatly undermined, the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, to the Renaissance, is underway.

The Renaissance, with its humanistic worldview, had a huge impact on musical culture. For musical art, humanism meant, first of all, deepening into the feelings of a person, recognizing a new aesthetic value behind them. This contributed to the identification and implementation of the strongest properties of musical specificity. The most distinct features of the early Renaissance were found in the art of the Italian Ars nova of the XIV century, the main representative of which was Francesco Landino. In his work, emphasis is placed on secular professional art, which broke with the circle of images and aesthetics of cult music and relied, first of all, on folk songs, written no longer in Latin, but in the national language.

In the future, a wave of transformations in the field of musical art swept other European countries. In French music, a polyphonic song appeared - chanson, representatives: K. Zhaneken, K. de Sermisi, G. Kotelet and others; this genre was imbued with folk-everyday genre, gravitating towards realistic program depiction, which testified to a sharp departure from church music. In the music of Spain, song genres of folk origin, such as villancico and romance, are marked with Renaissance features. German professional music is characterized by a polyphonic song with a main melody in tenor, which gravitates towards a harmonious choral warehouse.

In the Renaissance, the intensive development of instrumental music begins, while maintaining a connection with vocal genres. The influence of folk art on sacred music is growing, especially in countries covered by the anti-Catholic Reformation movement, which brought to life Hussite hymns in the Czech Republic, Protestant chant in Germany, Huguenot psalms in France. However, the church continued to play the role of a powerful organizational center, being the conductor of the official ideology, it brought up the bulk of professional composers.

But, even in spite of this, the advanced secular vocal and vocal-instrumental genres increasingly loudly declared their right to a more significant place in musical culture, sought to supplant masses, motets and genres of church music close to them. This was due to the fact that these genres, intended either for the church (in the masterful performance of a well-organized choir chapel), or (motet) for the court of a particular king, prince, duke (in artistic transmission by means of a court chapel) were not very conducive to expression of his own personality. Only over time, when a different aesthetic atmosphere developed in humanistic circles, did lyricism and drama get a wider and freer embodiment, first in the Italian madrigal, and then in the early examples of a new genre - "drama on music", that is, Italian opera.

The Italian, German and English madrigal and song genres clearly reflected the attention to the inner world of the individual, characteristic of the humanistic art of the Renaissance. A significant manifestation of advanced realistic trends in music was not only the creation of new plots, new musical and poetic images, but also far-reaching changes in the means of musical expression. Folk melody appears in many genres of composer music. Folk songs are used as a cantus firmus (the basis of a repetitive melody that went in the second voice from the bottom of polyphonic works) and in polyphonic music. The further development of polyphony in the west of Europe led to the development and consolidation of the patterns of the so-called "strict style" - one of the peaks of the then polyphonic music. Strict style to this day is an essential stage in the history of polyphony.

The main, main achievement of advanced music was the new character of the whole intonation-melodic development, smoothness, flexibility, melodiousness; a more significant degree of generalization of the melody of the "big breath" compared to the past - the most vivid expression of human experiences.

A great achievement of the musical culture of the Renaissance was the development of instrumental music based on new varieties of melodic stringed instruments that allowed "singing" on instruments (viola, bowed lyre, gamba, violin), and on the other hand, a significant expansion of the expressive possibilities of keyboard instruments ( organ, clavichord, harpsichord) in relation to chord-harmonic progressions. The lute is also rapidly improving - one of the most common instruments for everyday and concert music-making.

In addition, during the Renaissance, the development of professional skills associated with the emergence of metriz - singing boarding schools - a kind of choir chapels, where teaching singing, playing the organ, musical theory and general subjects was carried out from early childhood and ensured the systematic improvement of the musical abilities of students.

This is how a new type of musician is being formed - not an amateur from aristocrats, not a juggler and a stud man, but a professional who has received a special musical education.

The consolidation of musical professionalism led to the creation of national musical schools of excellence, which took shape in the largest centers of urban musical culture, which had great educational opportunities. One of the earliest forms in Western Europe was the polyphony of England, which rapidly developed and flourished in the works of Dönstepl in the first half of the 15th century. The most influential was the Dutch or Franco-Flemish school, in which such famous composers G. Dufay, J. Okegema, J. Obrecht, O. Lasso worked. Working in various countries, they combined the features of a number of national musical cultures: Dutch, German, French, Italian, English, created a highly developed polyphonic style, mainly choral, in which Renaissance features were clearly expressed.

By the middle of the 16th century, the direct successors of the Dutch polyphonists and the leading European schools of composition were the Roman school, headed by Palestrina, in whose work Renaissance features were combined with features that reflected the influence of the Counter-Reformation, and the Venetian school, headed by D. Gabrieli, who already had baroque features. . The national schools were characterized by the use of new musical means, which brought coherence and unity into the composition. The main musical means that introduced coherence and unity into the compositions was imitation, that is, the repetition of a melody by the incoming voice, immediately before being performed by another voice. In schools, there were peculiar types of imitations: canonical, imitation in circulation, increase, decrease, which subsequently led to the highest contrapuntal form - fugue.

The style of the presented national schools was reflected in the works of outstanding polyphonists from other countries - K. Morales and T. Victoria (Spain), W. Byrd and T. Tallis (England), M. Zalensky from Poland, and many others.

Thus, music occupied a somewhat special place among the arts of the Renaissance, both due to its specificity and depending on the conditions of its existence in society. Nevertheless, she was the art of her time, expressed it, experienced the difficulties and contradictions characteristic of it, developed her own style in accordance with it, won previously unthinkable victories and won new creative successes.

Chapter 2 Dance Culture in the Renaissance

2.1 Music and dance: aspects of interaction

So, musical culture occupied a special place in the art and culture of the Renaissance. Considering music, it is impossible not to refer to its various spheres. One of these areas is the art of dance.

Dance - a kind of art in which artistic images are created by means of plastic movements and a rhythmically clear and continuous change in the expressive positions of the human body. It should be noted that music and dance have been actively interacting for many centuries. Dance is inextricably linked with music, emotional and figurative content, which is embodied in its choreographic composition, movements , figures.

Ever since antiquity, we find a kind of synthesis of music, poetry, dance, for the Greeks they were not different arts, but one, unified whole. To designate this single art, the word "chorea" was used, which came from the word "chorus" that entered the Russian language, which only meant not so much collective singing as collective dance. In the future, the word "chorea" is transformed into choreography, which began to denote the art of dance itself, or, more precisely, the art of composing a dance.

In the era of the Middle Ages, features of the relationship between music and dance are also found, which embraces more complex techniques and forms, dance music becomes predominantly instrumental. The main influence on its structure and other features begins to be exerted by choreography, which is characterized by an ever-increasing uniformity and periodicity of the movements of the dancers. Dance rhythms willingly penetrate the genres of instrumental music intended exclusively for listening. For such dances, a significant complication of the musical language is characteristic: the role of through development increases, there is a violation of dance periodic structures by sequences, polyphonic techniques. As a result, the further connection between musical culture and dance becomes more complex and specific.

A huge transformation of music and dance took place during the Renaissance. Dance, dance music are the most important layers of the Renaissance culture. The development of musical art during the Renaissance was closely connected with the development of dance, since almost all major composers focused on dance in their compositions. Dance rhythms penetrate the genres of instrumental music intended exclusively for listening. Pavane, galliard, gigue, chimes, volta and other types of folk dances became the material for virtuoso compositions: the flexibility of melodies, the clarity of periods, and the continuous connection of motives were developed. Musicians borrow melodies and rhythms from folk songs and dances for genres of instrumental music; this can be seen especially clearly in such a work of musical culture as a suite.

At the initial stage of its development, the music of the suite had an applied character - they danced to it. It was a kind of combination of lute, and later clavier and orchestral dance pieces. In the 15th-16th centuries, the prototype of the suite was a series of three or more dances (for various instruments) that accompanied court processions and ceremonies, as well as paired combinations of contrasting dances (pavane - galliard, passamezzo - saltarello, etc.). The most typical basis for the dance suite was the set of dances that developed in the suites of I.Ya. Froberger: allemande - courant - sarabande - gigue. But for the development of the dramaturgy of the suite cycle, a certain removal from everyday dances was required. This turning point occurs in the Renaissance, and only then is most clearly reflected in the music of the 17th century. Since the middle of the 17th century, the dance suite, having lost its applied purpose, exists mainly under the names partita (German), lessons(English), balletto, sonata da camera, ordre(French), and sometimes as a "collection of clavier pieces." Thus, through transformation and interaction with music, it becomes a part of musical art, influences the formation of the sonata form. Artistic heights in this genre were reached by J. S. Bach (French and English suites, partitas for clavier, for violin and cello solo) and G. F. Handel (17 clavier suites).

Concerning other aspects, first of all, it is worth noting the impact that dance music had on the formation of a homophonic-harmonic warehouse. It is with her that professional art, in the midst of polyphonic church polyphony, comes homophonic-harmonic thinking, clearly divided, thematically bright melody, periodic rhythm; there is a formation of tonal organization (for example, the major mode, new for that time, was the first to establish itself in the dances of the Renaissance.

In dance music are the origins of many major instrumental forms on which all classical art is based (period, simple three-part form, variational, cyclic). The emancipation of instrumental music is largely connected with dance literature (new genres appear), the formation of independent clavier (later - piano), lute, and orchestral styles. The wealth of dance images captured in classical music is enormous. And this is not surprising: after all, the figurative implementation of dance rhythms and intonations, along with song folklore, plays an important role in strengthening the realistic foundations of musical art. Composers invariably embody facial expressions, gesture, plasticity in the movement of dance or march in their works, turning to dance music when creating both instrumental (chamber, symphonic) and vocal, including opera compositions.

Thus, it should be noted the important role of dance in the musical culture of Western Europe, starting from the Renaissance. Dance rhythms attracted major composers, and music based on such rhythms, in turn, influenced the practice and theory of dance. The music required the dance to follow its discoveries, absorb something new and interact with other art forms. Evidence of such a shift is given to us by the dances of the Renaissance, as a symbol of the formation of dance art on a new path of development.

2.2 Choreography on the outskirts of self-determination

Among other types of art in the Renaissance, dancing begins to stand out. The dance becomes especially popular and achieves unprecedented success in its development. If in previous eras dance was just a part of a cult or general entertainment, then in the Renaissance, choreographic art has new functions, a new attitude to dance. The sinfulness, unworthiness of this occupation, characteristic of the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance, it turns into an indispensable part of secular life and becomes one of the most necessary skills for a well-mannered and educated person (along with such skills as skillful possession of a sword, the ability to ride horses, pleasant and speak politely, oratorize subtly). Dance flows into the general course of transformations: under the influence of music, it turns into a professional art.

Choreography is embarking on the path to self-determination: art is being streamlined, establishing certain rules and norms, honing techniques and structural forms, there is a division of dance types: folk (peasant) and court (noble-feudal) dance, which began in the Middle Ages, continues. This process proceeded gradually and was associated with the growing stratification of society and the resulting differences between the way of life of ordinary people and the nobility. “Spontaneity has passed,” writes Kurt Sachs. – The court and folk dances were separated once and for all. They will constantly influence one another, but their goals have become fundamentally different.

If folk dances retain their relaxed, rough character, then the style of court dances becomes more and more solemn, measured, and somewhat prim. This was due to several factors. Firstly, the lush and heavy clothing style of the feudal lords ruled out energetic, strenuous movements and sudden jumps. Secondly, the strict regulation of manners, rules of conduct and all dance etiquette leads to the exclusion of pantomime and improvisational elements from the dance.

There is a significant change in the technique of dance: a balance between movements and rhythms of the dance, periods of oscillation from rest to movement and from rest to tension, rhythm alternation in one dance are ordered. In addition, the technique of performance changes: Dances with a round dance and linear-rank composition are replaced by paired (duet) dances, which are built on complex movements and figures that have the character of a more or less frank love game. The basis of the choreographic pattern is the rapid change of episodes, different in the nature of the movements and in the number of participants.

The need to regulate dance etiquette contributes to the formation of a cadre of professional dance masters. Dance masters create the canonical forms of dance, which are diligently and punctually studied by a privileged society. This is largely facilitated by textbooks, where movements are systematized, an attempt is made to fix dance compositions. Arguing the importance of this moment in the history of dance, Kurt Sachs especially notes Northern Italy, in which, first of all, professional dance training arose. And, indeed, the most magnificent dance art flourishes in Italy. Balls in Florence of the 15th-16th centuries are an example of splendor, brilliance, ingenuity. Italian dance teachers are invited to various countries. “Professional dancers used to be wandering mimes and despicable jugglers,” writes Sacks, a northern Italian dance teacher who held an honorable position. He was a companion of princes, sometimes a confidante; at Venetian weddings, where it was customary to introduce the bride in a silent dance, he could perform instead of the father. The teachers were especially interested in creating schools for teaching dance. And, already in the 15th century, special schools appeared in Italy, the profession of a dance teacher was firmly established. Thus it is probable that in the 16th century Italy was the queen of the dance, just as it seems to have been in the 15th century.

Domenico from Piacenza is considered the first Italian theorist of dance art. Domenico da Piacenza at the turn of the XIV - XV century composed a treatise "On the Art of Dance and Dance". The book consists of two parts. The first part is devoted to the dance as a whole and defines its five elements: measure, demeanor, division of the platform, memory and elevation. Measure is the main principle of connection between fast and slow movements in music; the division of the site is essential for the composition of a group dance; memory is needed to actually create the dance; the manner of holding frees the dance from motionless and outdated forms; elevation is designed for the development of dance technique. The other part of the treatise establishes the categories of basic movements. Here he divides movements into two types: artificial and natural. Natural movements - simple and double step, noble posture, turn and half turn, bow and jump. Artificial movements include kicking, mincing step and jumping with a variable leg.

In addition, it is worth noting another theorist and teacher of dance - Guglielmo Embreo, who composed the Treatise on the Art of Dance. In his treatise, he also advises to coordinate movements with the measure set by music. He introduces the term contro tempo - against the pace, which must be obeyed in order to succeed in a learned dance. In addition, he puts forward the concept of an aria, which implies the ability to move between tempos and move from one dance to another. Guglielmo's work cannot be overestimated, he expressed the humanistic worldview of the Renaissance when he declared dance to be a "free-thinking science" as sublime and significant as others, and more so addressed to human nature.

Among the Italian works on choreography of the 16th century, Fabrizio Caroso's book The Dancer, published in 1581, deserves attention. This book is a kind of manual intended for ballroom dancing, however, it can be said that these rules were also used in stage dance, although more representative steps prevailed in them. In the book, he tries to systematize not only the dances, but also the movements that make them up. For example, he divides curtsies into "important" ("grave"), "small" ("minima"), "medium" ("semiminima"). The "medium" curtsy included a jump. Consistent with the variation of the dance with the variety of musical rhythms, Coroso already used positions close to the first, third and fourth positions of classical dance, as well as pirouettes and various types of jumps, including skids (entrecha). The dance technique included acrobatic moves, such as the saut de noeud (knot jump), but this technique later disappeared. The new technique allowed Coroso to compose ballets in five, six and even ten parts, according to the music. Caroso demanded that the evolution of the dancers should correspond to the size of the ancient versification, and he mentioned the dactyl, the sapphic stanza, the spodei. He wrote about the dance - a free ensemble, "performed with mathematical precision, in accordance with the verses of Ovid."

Caroso undoubtedly laid the foundation for the development of ballet, its technique and performance. Naturally, the first ballet performances appeared in Italy. So, for example, in 1489, the Lombard Bergonzo di Bota, in honor of the marriage of the Duke of Milan, Galazo Visconti, created a magnificent theatrical celebration in which dance alternated with singing, music and recitation. Italian choreography had a great influence on the first French ballets. By the end of the 16th century, ballet performances appeared with a complete plot, which is revealed through dance, singing, poetic recitative, complex and magnificent decoration. The experience of the young Italian ballet, its pedagogical methods and works on choreography were accepted by many European countries. Thus, in the Renaissance, one can already speak of the beginnings of ballet.

Another famous author on the “art of dance” is Tuano Arbo, a French writer and priest. His contribution to the development of dance is no less significant than that of the Italian dance masters. "Orchezography" by Tuano Arbaud is the most popular treatise containing information on French bass dances of the 16th century. Arbo is trying to restore medieval dance, to redesign it in a new way, and from here his fame as the first specialist in the reconstruction of dance is born.

Summing up, we can say that the dance art is on a par with other types of art and is not inferior to them in any way. The dance is stylized, brought into the system. The vast possibilities of the human body are opening up. The dance moves from telling reality to expressing an abstract thought. Further - from court performance to theatrical dance.

During the Renaissance, dance becomes a way of social entertainment and communication. At the end of the 16th century, everyone believed that dance was necessary for society as a means of playful flirting to demonstrate the grace and charm of ladies and the strength and prowess of gentlemen. Balls were arranged on the occasion of all significant events, general and private. The beauty and sophistication of each participant was important for creating a festive ballroom atmosphere, confirming the high socio-political status of the host and facilitating marriages, which at that time was extremely important for maintaining the structure of society. The ability to dance was honed by the nobles and the middle class who imitated them by daily practice under the guidance of many teachers. At the royal courts there were choreographers - dance teachers, their duties included teaching dances to persons of both sexes, as well as staging a spectacle in general.

So professional dance began to enter into all kinds of spectacles. The dance, which in the Middle Ages was intended for a "sacred act", retreated in the 15th century before the festivities of a secular nature. Most of all at that time they were fond of masquerades - masks were of particular importance in this era. Dance was also involved in street processions, in which whole performances of a dance character were played out. More often, such street processions interpreted pagan stories, the content of myths, which was typical for the Renaissance, as for an era turned to antiquity.

Carnivals also made a great contribution to dance as a public entertainment. The most magnificent of these were the triumphs (trionfi), performances on mythological subjects with skillfully executed scenery. Somewhat more modest were curries (carri, from Italian carro - “wagon”) - masquerades of artisans and merchants in Italian cities: here crowds of masked people marched behind the decorative symbols of their professions. Spectacles, where music, singing, recitation, pantomime and dance were mixed, were accompanied by solemn meals, various court feasts.

But still, the dance of the Renaissance is much wider than simple entertainment. At this time, ancient ideas about the deepest impact of dance on the spiritual and physical state of a person are being revived. On the pages of numerous dance treatises, the idea is often expressed that dance is by no means pure plasticity, but a way of reflecting spiritual movements. “As for the highest perfection of dances, it consists in improving the spirit and body and bringing them to the best possible location,” wrote the French music theorist, philosopher, physicist and mathematician M. Mersenne in one of his works. Often the dance, as in ancient times, is given a cosmological

meaning. It is no coincidence that the interest and awareness in matters of dance art are revealed by the persons of the clergy - the abbot de Pure, canon Arbaud, the priest Menetrier.

2.3 Genre palette of dance art

The new attitude towards dance during the Renaissance gave rise to numerous dance genres. Judging by the titles of the pieces placed in various musical collections, practical guides and treatises, the picture is unusually variegated: some dances quickly go out of fashion; others, having appeared in one century, retain their significance in another (for example, saltarello, bass dance, branle), some of them change the nature and style of choreography over time.

Each province has its own dances and its own style of performance. Noverre wrote that the minuet came to us from Angouleme, that the birthplace of the bourre dance is Auvergne. In Lyon they will find the first rudiments of the gavotte, in Provence, the tambourine.

So, All everyday dances of this time were divided into two main groups: Bassa danza (French basses danses) - that is, “low” dances in which there were no jumps, and the legs almost did not rise above the floor (pavane, allemande, chimes , sarabande, etc.); Alta danza (French haute danses) - that is, “high” dances of round dance, in which the dancers twirled and bounced (moreska, galliard, volta, saltarello, various types of branles, etc.)

In the era of the early Renaissance, the opposition of dances of slow and more lively movement (bassa danza and alta danza) is characteristic. It is found both at balls and in the emerging professional music already in the late Middle Ages. In the musical sources of the 14th - early 15th centuries, groupings of dances in 2 are common: the 1st dance of each pair is sustained in an even time signature and a slow tempo, the 2nd - in a 3-beat time signature and a fast tempo. More than others, pairs of pavan - galliard passamezzo - saltarello were common. They interacted with each other, but, nevertheless, retained their individual traits.

Regarding the genres of the dance art of the era, there were a fairly large number of them, but the most popular were: bass dance, pavane, chimes, branle, moresca, galliard, saltarello and volta. In order to understand what the specificity of each of the dances was, it is necessary to refer to their description and interpretation.

bass dance(French basse danse - "low dance") - the collective name of court dances at a moderate or moderately slow pace and, as a rule, in a 4-beat size, common in France, Italy, the Netherlands between the 2nd half of the XIV and the middle XVI century. The origin of the name is not entirely clear. Perhaps it is associated with the practice of performing the music of these dances on low register instruments, and perhaps with the absence of high jumps of dancers in bass dances. Due to the lack of fast pas and jumping movements characteristic of "high dances" (French - haute danse, Italian - alta danza), bass dances were often called "promenade". The compositional drawing could be built in the form of a round dance, a procession. The bass dances were, as it were, a small choreographic composition in which the dancers showed themselves to the assembled society and demonstrated their wealth, splendor of outfits and nobility of manners. In the 15th century, according to K. Sachs, bass dance “… did not follow any established order of steps. Motley, like colors in a kaleidoscope, he combined new movements every time. Bass dance music, often chorale in nature, was usually improvised on the basis of the cantus firmus. Free choreography also corresponded to an open (open) musical structure with an arbitrary number of sections. Various instrumental compositions were used to perform bass dance: lute, harp and drum; trombone, flute with snare drum, etc. As one of the parts, bass dance was included in the early instrumental suites. Varieties of bass dance: Bassadans- a more refined Italian version of bass dance, popular in the 15th century. Differs in a more mobile pace; beer - Italian dance of the 15th century, the pace is even faster than that of the Bassadans, until the 16th century the name "beer" was protected by a fast 3-beat dance, before which the pavane and saltarello were often performed.

pavana- solemn slow dance. The origin of this dance is quite ambiguous: according to one version, the pavane is a primordially Italian dance, its name is associated with the place of origin, the city of Padua, according to another version, the pavane is a dance of Spanish origin. There is reason to believe that the term "padovana" was also used as a word denoting a generic concept - a certain type of dance that combines the pavana and its variety - the passamezzo.

Already at the beginning of the 16th century, the pavane became one of the most popular court dances: it was danced in a cloak and with a sword during solemn ceremonies: when the bride left for church, when the clergy performed religious processions, when princes and members of the city administration left. Pavane music is characterized by: clearness of structure, often squareness of the metro-rhythmic structure, predominantly chord presentation, sometimes colored with passages.

There is evidence that the performance of the pavane was accompanied by tambourine, flute, oboes and trombones, supported by a drum that emphasized the rhythm of the dance. In each country, the nature of the movements and the manner of performing pavanes had their own characteristics: in France, the steps were smooth, slow, graceful, sliding; in Italy, they were more lively, restless, alternating with small jumps. In the 2nd half of the 16th century, the pavane practically fell into disuse in Europe, remaining, however, until the mid-1620s. one of the most popular dances in England. The instrumental pavane reached its dawn in the work of the English virginalists. Related pavanes were: pavanilla- instrumental dance, popular in Italy in the 1st half of the 17th century, was more lively in character and pace; paduana - it became widespread at the end of the Renaissance, and was characteristic of the 17th century - at least two different dances were called that: a two-part pavane and a 3-part dance performed after the passamezzo; passamezzo- Italian dance, differs from pavanes in a more mobile pace. Literally translated as “dance in 1.5 steps”, which indicates the faster nature of his movement than in the pavan. There were two most common varieties "old" (antico) and "modern" (moderno), stemming from the characteristics of the harmonic accompaniment plan.

Courant- court dance, of Italian origin, from the Italian word corrente, which means the flow of water, smooth, uniform. The compositional pattern of the dance usually went along an oval, but it could also be an elongated square or an octagon, which made it possible to make zigzag movements characteristic of the Italian piva dance that existed in the 15th century. The chime was simple and complex. The first consisted of simple, gliding steps, performed predominantly forward. The complex chime had a pantomimic character: three gentlemen invited three ladies to participate in the dance, they took the ladies to the opposite corner of the hall and asked to dance, the ladies refused, the gentlemen, having been refused, left, but then returned again and kneeled in front of the ladies. Only after the pantomime scene did the dance begin. In a complex chime, movements were performed forward, backward and to the side. In the middle of the 16th century, the pantomime part of the dance disappeared. The Courante has changed its time signature many times. At first it was 2/4, later it was triple.

branle- originally a folk round dance, later also a ballroom, court dance of the 15th - 17th centuries. The very word branle, meaning in French - rocking, round dance, also characterizes one of the main movements - rocking the body. Its numerous varieties are known, differing from each other in the size of the tempo, choreography (simple ballet, double ball, ballet dancer, shoe ballet, ballet with a torch, ballet with kisses, etc.) and local variants (B. from Poitou, B. from Champagne). The pace of the dance is moderately fast, lively. The size is usually 2-beat, sometimes 3-beat (in the "jolly branle", which included jumps and swings) and 4-beat (in Champagne). Folk branle - energetic, impetuous, chased, ballroom - more smooth and calm, with a lot of curtsy. Sometimes it was accompanied by singing (couplets with a chorus) and playing folk instruments (pipe, flute, tambourine, bagpipes). In the 15th century, it was performed as the end of the bass dance, from which, perhaps, it comes. In terms of choreography, it was still quite primitive, especially since its musical accompaniment consisted of rather monotonous tambourine beats, flute sounds and the monotonous singing of the dancers. But, at the same time, it should be noted that the branle was the primary source of all salon dances that appeared later, playing a big role in the development of ballroom choreography.

Moreska -(moresca(Italian) - literally "Moorish", morisdance - from English morris dance) - musical - dance scene. The scene symbolically reproduced the struggle between Christians and Moors. In Italy, the dance was called "Morisca", the same name was given to the Moors who were baptized and converted to Christianity. Originating in Spain, the moresca was originally a folk dance and was danced by two groups. During the Renaissance, the moresca was one of the most popular dances, becoming an attribute of various urban theatrical spectacles and performances of the emerging musical theater. There, she loses her original features of the folk game (while retaining, however, the mask of the Moor), and gradually turns into a figured dance of a solemn, often warlike character. Later, in the 17th century, the term moresca denoted a ballet or pantomime dance in an opera: for example, Monteverdi introduced the moresca into the finale of the opera "Orpheus" -1607.

galliard(gagliarda, ital. cheerful, bold, cheerful) - an old dance of Romanesque origin of the late XV - XVII centuries. Apparently, it comes from Northern Italy, in various regions and cities it bore the imprint of local customs and mores. This is a cheerful and lively dance, originating in folk choreography, although it was most widespread among the privileged classes, retaining the features of peasant dances - jumps and abrupt movements, often having joking names (“crane step”, “cow kick”). Like the chimes, it had the character of a kind of dialogue. Accompanied by a small orchestral ensemble or playing the lute and guitar. The galliards of the 16th century are characterized by a 3-meter, moderately fast tempo, chord warehouse, diatonic. It was usually performed after a slow 4-beat pavane, varying its melodic and

metric pattern. A similar sequence of a slow 4-beat pavane and a fast 3-beat galliard was the prototype of the Baroque instrumental suite.

Saltarella- folk italian dance. Its name comes from the Italian word saltare - to jump, jump. He is known in Romagna, Lazo, San Marino, In Abruzzio. Each region performs it differently. Saltarella is a very simple dance, it does not have fixed figures. The main movement is balance. But the performers must have dexterity and strength, as the pace in the dance increases all the time, reaching a very stormy one. Saltarella is a pair dance, the number of couples participating in the dance can be very large. Like many other folk dances, the saltarella sometimes begins with a playful pantomime scene. In some areas of Italy, for example in Giogaria, the saltarella exists as a low jumping dance.

There are also its round dance varieties. In the round dance saltarella, the dancers stand closely pressed against each other, their bodies are tilted forward, their heads almost collide in the center of the circle; hands are placed on each other's shoulders. Bare feet glide gently on the ground. The performers sway to the rhythm of the movement of the legs. The performance of the saltarella in Romagna is peculiar. Here it is accompanied by a song sung by one of the participants, and is, as it were, a demonstration of dexterity. Women put a glass on their heads, filled to the brim with water or wine. During complex and fast movements, not a single drop should be spilled.

Volta- pair dance of Italian origin. Its name comes from the Italian word voltare, which means "to turn". Usually the dance is performed by one couple (man and woman), but the number of couples can be increased. Like many other folk dances, the volta, soon after its appearance, began to be performed at court festivities. In the 16th century, she was known in all European countries, but she had the greatest success at the French court. However, already under Louis XIII, the French court of the Volta does not dance. This dance lasted the longest in Italy.

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The Renaissance, or Renaissance, is a period in the history of the culture of Western and Central Europe, covering approximately the 14th-16th centuries. This period got its name in connection with the revival of interest in ancient art, which has become an ideal for cultural figures of modern times. Composers and musical theorists - J. Tinktoris, J. Tsarlino and others - studied ancient Greek musical treatises; in the works of Josquin Despres, who was compared with Michelangelo, according to contemporaries, "the lost perfection of the music of the ancient Greeks was revived": appeared in the late 16th - early 17th centuries. the opera was guided by the laws of ancient drama.

Music theory lessons. From a 16th century engraving.

J. P. Palestrina.

The development of the culture of the Renaissance is associated with the rise of all aspects of society. A new worldview was born - humanism (from the Latin humanus - "human"). The emancipation of creative forces led to the rapid development of science, trade, crafts, and new, capitalist relations took shape in the economy. The invention of printing contributed to the spread of education. The great geographical discoveries and the heliocentric system of the world by N. Copernicus changed the ideas about the Earth and the Universe.

The fine arts, architecture, and literature reached an unprecedented flourishing. The new attitude was reflected in the music and transformed its appearance. It gradually departs from the norms of the medieval canon, the style is individualized, the very concept of “composer” appears for the first time. The texture of works changes, the number of voices increases to four, six or more (for example, the 36-voice canon is known, attributed to the largest representative of the Dutch school, J. Okegem). Consonant consonances dominate in harmony, the use of dissonances is strictly limited by special rules (see Consonance and dissonance). The major and minor scales and the clock system of rhythms, characteristic of later music, are formed.

All these new means were used by composers to convey a special system of feelings of a Renaissance man - sublime, harmonious, calm and majestic. The connection between text and music becomes closer, the music begins to convey the mood, or, as they said then, the affects of the text, individual words, such as “life”, “death”, “love”, etc., are often illustrated by special musical means.

Renaissance music developed in two directions - ecclesiastical and secular. The main genres of church music - mass and motet - are polyphonic polyphonic works for the choir, unaccompanied or accompanied by an instrumental ensemble (see Choral music, Polyphony). Of the instruments, preference was given to the organ.

The growth of amateur music-making contributed to the development of secular music. Music sounded everywhere: on the streets, in the houses of citizens, in the palaces of noble nobles. The first concert virtuoso performers appeared on the lute, harpsichord, organ, viol, various types of longitudinal flutes. In polyphonic songs (madrigal - in Italy, chanson - in France), composers talked about love, about everything that occurs in life. Here are the titles of some of the songs: "Deer Hunt", "Echo", "Battle of Marignano".

In the XV-XVI centuries. the importance of the art of dance increases, numerous treatises and practical guides on choreography appear, collections of dance music, which include popular dances of that time - bass dance, branle, pavane, galliard.

During the Renaissance, national music schools were formed. The largest of them is the Dutch (French-Flemish) polyphonic school. Its representatives are G. Dufay, K. Janequin, J. Okegem, J. Obrecht, Josquin Despres, O. Lasso. Among other national schools are Italian (J. P. Palestrina), Spanish (T. L. de Victoria), English (W. Byrd), German (L. Senfl).

Renaissance, or Renaissance(fr. renaissance), - a turning point in the history of the culture of European peoples. In Italy, new trends appeared already at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, in other European countries - in the 15th-16th centuries. Renaissance figures recognized a person - his good and the right to free development of personality - as the highest value. This worldview was called "humanism" (from Latin humanus - "human", "human"). Humanists searched for the ideal of a harmonious person in antiquity, and ancient Greek and Roman art served as a model for their artistic creativity. The desire to "revive" ancient culture gave the name to an entire era - the Renaissance, the period between the Middle Ages and the New Age (from the middle of the 17th century to the present day).

The worldview of the Renaissance most fully reflects art, including music. During this period, as well as in the Middle Ages, the leading place belonged to vocal church music. The development of polyphony led to the emergence of polyphony (from the Greek "polis" - "numerous" and "background" - "sound", "voice"). With this type of polyphony, all voices in the work are equal. Polyphony not only complicated the work, but allowed the author to express a personal understanding of the text, gave the music greater emotionality. A polyphonic composition was created according to strict and complex rules, requiring deep knowledge and virtuoso skill from the composer. Within the framework of polyphony, church and secular genres developed.

Dutch polyphonic school. The Netherlands is a historical region in northwestern Europe, which includes the territories of modern Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg and Northeastern France. By the 15th century The Netherlands reached a high economic and cultural level and turned into a prosperous European country.

It was here that the Dutch polyphonic school was formed - one of the largest phenomena of Renaissance music. For the development of the art of the 15th century, the communication of musicians from different countries, the mutual influence of creative schools, was important. The Dutch school absorbed the traditions of Italy, France, England and the Netherlands themselves.

Its prominent representatives: Guillaume Dufay (1400-1474) (Dufay) (circa 1400 - 11/27/1474, Cambrai), Franco-Flemish composer, one of the founders of the Dutch school. The foundations of the polyphonic tradition in Dutch music were laid by Guillaume Dufay (circa 1400 - 1474). He was born in the city of Cambrai in Flanders (a province in the south of the Netherlands) and from an early age sang in the church choir. In parallel, the future musician took private lessons in composition. In his youth, Dufay went to Italy, where he wrote his first compositions - ballads and motets. In 1428-1437. he served as a singer in the papal chapel in Rome; during these years he traveled to Italy and France. In 1437, the composer took holy orders. At the court of the Duke of Savoy (1437-1439), he composed music for solemn ceremonies and holidays. Dufay was highly respected by noble people - among his admirers were, for example, the Medici couple (rulers of the Italian city of Florence). [Worked in Italy and France. In 1428-37 he was a singer of papal chapels in Rome and other Italian cities, in 1437-44 he served with the Duke of Savoy. Since 1445 canon and head of the musical activities of the cathedral in Cambrai. Master of spiritual (3-, 4-voice masses, motets), as well as secular (3-, 4-voice French chansons, Italian songs, ballads, rondo) genres associated with folk polyphony and the humanistic culture of the Renaissance. The art of D., which absorbed the achievements of European musical art, had a great influence on the further development of European polyphonic music. He was also a reformer of musical writing (D. is credited with the introduction of notes with white heads). The complete works of D. published in Rome (6 vols., 1951-66).] Dufay was the first among composers to begin composing the mass as an integral musical composition. To create church music, an extraordinary talent is required: the ability to express abstract, intangible concepts with concrete, material means. The difficulty lies in the fact that such a composition, on the one hand, does not leave the listener indifferent, and on the other hand, does not distract from worship, helps to focus more deeply on prayer. Many of Dufay's masses are inspired, full of inner life; they seem to help to lift the veil of Divine revelation for a moment.

Often, when creating a mass, Dufay took a well-known melody, to which he added his own. Such borrowings are characteristic of the Renaissance. It was considered very important that the mass be based on a familiar melody that the worshipers could easily recognize even in a polyphonic piece. A fragment of Gregorian chant was often used; secular works were not excluded.

In addition to church music, Dufay composed motets on secular texts. In them, he also used a complex polyphonic technique.

Josquin Despres (1440-1521). Representative of the Dutch polyphonic school of the second half of the 15th century. was Josquin Despres (circa 1440-1521 or 1524), who had a great influence on the work of composers of the next generation. In his youth he served as a church choirboy in Cambrai; took music lessons from Okegyom. At the age of twenty, the young musician came to Italy, sang in Milan with the Dukes of Sforza (later the great Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci served here) and in the papal chapel in Rome. In Italy, Despres probably began composing music. At the very beginning of the XVI century. he moved to Paris. By that time, Despres was already known, and he was invited to the post of court musician by the French king Louis XII. Since 1503, Despres again settled in Italy, in the city of Ferrara, at the court of the Duke d "Este. Despres composed a lot, and his music quickly gained recognition in the widest circles: she was loved by both the nobility and the common people. The composer created not only church works, but also secular. In particular, he turned to the genre of Italian folk song - frottola (it. frottola, from frotta - "crowd"), which is characterized by a dance rhythm and fast pace. In church music, Despres brought the features of secular works: fresh ", living intonation violated the strict detachment and evoked a feeling of joy and fullness of being. However, the sense of proportion never betrayed the composer. Despres' polyphonic technique is not distinguished by sophistication. His works are elegantly simple, but the powerful intellect of the author is felt in them. This is the secret of the popularity of his creations .

Johannes Okegem (1430-1495), Jacob Obrecht (1450-1505). Guillaume Dufay's younger contemporaries were Johannes (Jean) Okeghem (circa 1425-1497) and Jacob Obrecht. Like Dufay, Okegem was from Flanders. All his life he worked hard; in addition to composing music, he acted as the head of the chapel. The composer created fifteen masses, thirteen motets, more than twenty chansons. Okegyom's works are characterized by strictness, concentration, and a long unfolding of smooth melodic lines. He paid great attention to the polyphonic technique, strove for all parts of the mass to be perceived as a single whole. The composer's creative style can also be seen in his songs - they are almost devoid of secular lightness, their character is more reminiscent of motets, and sometimes fragments of masses. Johannes Okegem was respected both at home and abroad (he was appointed adviser to the King of France). Jakob Obrecht was a chorister in the cathedrals of various cities in the Netherlands, led the chapels; served for several years at the court of the Duke d "Este in Ferrara (Italy). He is the author of twenty-five masses, twenty motets, thirty chansons. Using the achievements of his predecessors, Obrecht brought a lot of new things to the polyphonic tradition. His music is full of contrasts, bold, even when the composer turns to traditional church genres.

The versatility and depth of creativity Orlando Lasso. The history of Dutch Renaissance music is completed by the work of Orlando Lasso (real name and surname Roland de Lasso, circa 1532-1594), called by his contemporaries the "Belgian Orpheus" and the "Prince of Music". Lasso was born in Mons (Flanders). From childhood, he sang in the church choir, striking the parishioners with a wonderful voice. Gonzaga, Duke of the Italian city of Mantua, accidentally heard a young singer, invited him to his own chapel. After Mantua, Lasso worked for a short time in Naples, and then moved to Rome - where he received the position of head of the chapel of one of the cathedrals. By the age of twenty-five, Lasso was already known as a composer, and his compositions were in demand among music publishers. In 1555, the first collection of works was published, containing motets, madrigals and chanson. Lasso studied all the best that was created by his predecessors (Dutch, French, German and Italian composers), and used their experience in his work. Being an extraordinary personality, Lasso sought to overcome the abstract nature of church music, to give it individuality. To this end, the composer sometimes used genre and everyday motifs (themes of folk songs, dances), thus bringing together church and secular traditions. Lasso combined the complexity of polyphonic technique with great emotionality. He was especially successful in madrigals, in the texts of which the state of mind of the characters was revealed, for example, Tears of St. Peter "(1593) to the verses of the Italian poet Luigi Tranzillo. The composer often wrote for a large number of voices (five to seven), so his works are difficult to perform .

From 1556, Orlando Lasso lived in Munich (Germany), where he led the chapel. By the end of his life, his authority in musical and artistic circles was very high, and his fame spread throughout Europe. The Dutch polyphonic school had a great influence on the development of the musical culture of Europe. The principles of polyphony developed by Dutch composers became universal, and composers of the 20th century used many artistic techniques in their work.

France. For France, the XV-XVI centuries became an era of important changes: the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) with England ended, by the end of the XV century. the unification of the state was completed; in the 16th century the country experienced religious wars between Catholics and Protestants. In a strong state with an absolute monarchy, the role of court celebrations and folk festivals increased. This contributed to the development of art, in particular music, which accompanied such actions. The number of vocal and instrumental ensembles (chapels and consorts), which consisted of a significant number of performers, increased. During military campaigns in Italy, the French got acquainted with the achievements of Italian culture. They deeply felt and accepted the ideas of the Italian Renaissance - humanism, the desire for harmony with the outside world, for the enjoyment of life.

If in Italy the musical Renaissance was associated primarily with the mass, then French composers, along with church music, paid special attention to the secular polyphonic song - chanson. Interest in it in France arose in the first half of the 16th century, when a collection of musical plays by Clement Janequin (circa 1485-1558) was published. It is this composer who is considered one of the creators of the genre.

Major choral program works by Clement Janequin (1475-1560). As a child, Janequin sang in a church choir in his hometown of Châtellerault (Central France). In the future, as music historians suggest, he studied with the Dutch master Josquin Despres or with a composer from his entourage. Having received the priesthood, Janequin worked as a regent (choir leader) and organist; then he was invited to serve by the Duke of Guise. In 1555, the musician became a singer of the Royal Chapel, and in 1556-1557. - royal court composer. Clement Janequin created two hundred and eighty chansons (published between 1530 and 1572); wrote church music - masses, motets, psalms. His songs were often pictorial in nature. Before the mind's eye of the listener are pictures of the battle ("Battle of Marignano", "Battle of Rent", "Battle of Metz"), hunting scenes ("Hunting"), images of nature ("Birdsong", "Nightingale", "Lark" ), everyday scenes ("Women's chatter"). Strikingly bright, the composer managed to convey the atmosphere of everyday life in Paris in the chanson "Cries of Paris": he introduced the exclamations of sellers into the text ("Milk!" - "Pies!" - "Artichokes!" - "Fish!" - "Matches!" - "Doves !" - "Old shoes!" - "Wine!"). Janequin almost did not use long and smooth themes for individual voices and complex polyphonic devices, preferring roll calls, repetitions, and onomatopoeia.

Another direction of French music is associated with the pan-European movement of the Reformation.

In church services, French Protestants (Huguenots) abandoned Latin and polyphony. Sacred music acquired a more open, democratic character. One of the brightest representatives of this musical tradition was Claude Goudimel (between 1514 and 1520-1572), the author of psalms based on biblical texts and Protestant chants.

Chanson. One of the main musical genres of the French Renaissance is chanson (fr. chanson - "song"). Its origins are in folk art (the rhymed verses of epic tales were set to music), in the art of medieval troubadours and trouveurs. In terms of content and mood, the chanson could be very diverse - there were love songs, everyday, playful, satirical, etc. Composers took folk poems and modern poetry as texts.

Italy. With the onset of the Renaissance in Italy, domestic music playing on various instruments spread; circles of music lovers arose. In the professional field, two of the strongest schools were formed: the Roman and the Venetian.

Madrigal. During the Renaissance, the role of secular genres increased. In the XIV century. madrigal appeared in Italian music (from late Latin matricale - "a song in the native language"). It was formed on the basis of folk (shepherd's) songs. Madrigals were songs for two or three voices, often without instrumental accompaniment. They were written to the verses of modern Italian poets, which told about love; there were songs on everyday and mythological subjects.

During the 15th century, composers almost did not turn to this genre; interest in it was revived only in the 16th century. A characteristic feature of the madrigal of the 16th century is the close connection between music and poetry. The music flexibly followed the text, reflecting the events described in the poetic source. Over time, peculiar melodic symbols developed, denoting tender sighs, tears, etc. In the works of some composers, the symbolism was philosophical, for example, in Gesualdo di Venosa's madrigal "I am dying, unfortunate" (1611).

The heyday of the genre falls on the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Sometimes, simultaneously with the performance of the song, its plot was played out. The madrigal became the basis of the madrigal comedy (a choral composition based on the text of a comedy play), which prepared the appearance of the opera.

Roman polyphonic school. Giovanni de Palestrina (1525-1594). The head of the Roman school was Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, one of the greatest composers of the Renaissance. He was born in the Italian city of Palestrina, after which he received his surname. From childhood, Palestrina sang in the church choir, and upon reaching adulthood, he was invited to the post of bandmaster (choir leader) in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome; later served in the Sistine Chapel (the court chapel of the Pope).

Rome, the center of Catholicism, attracted many leading musicians. At different times, Dutch polyphonic masters Guillaume Dufay and Josquin Despres worked here. Their developed composing technique sometimes interfered with the perception of the text of the service: it was lost behind the exquisite plexus of voices and the words, in fact, were not audible. Therefore, the church authorities were wary of such works and advocated the return of monophony based on Gregorian chants. The question of the admissibility of polyphony in church music was discussed even at the Council of Trent of the Catholic Church (1545-1563). Close to the Pope, Palestrina convinced the leaders of the Church of the possibility of creating works where the composer's technique would not interfere with the understanding of the text. As proof, he composed the "Mass of Papa Marcello" (1555), which combines complex polyphony with a clear and expressive sound of each word. Thus, the musician "saved" professional polyphonic music from the persecution of church authorities. In 1577, the composer was invited to discuss the reform of the gradual - a collection of sacred hymns of the Catholic Church. In the 80s. Palestrina took holy orders, and in 1584 he became a member of the Society of Music Masters - an association of musicians that was directly subordinate to the Pope.

The work of Palestrina is imbued with a bright worldview. The works he created impressed his contemporaries both with the highest skill and quantity (more than a hundred masses, three hundred motets, one hundred madrigals). The complexity of music has never served as a barrier to its perception. The composer knew how to find the golden mean between the sophistication of compositions and their accessibility to the listener. Palestrina saw the main creative task in developing an integral large work. Each voice in his chants develops independently, but at the same time forms a single whole with the rest, and often the voices form combinations of chords that are striking in their beauty. Often the melody of the upper voice seems to soar above the rest, outlining the "dome" of polyphony; all voices are smooth and developed.

The art of Giovanni da Palestrina was considered exemplary and classical by musicians of the next generation. Many outstanding composers of the 18th and 18th centuries studied on his compositions.

Another direction of Renaissance music is associated with the work of composers of the Venetian school, the founder of which was Adrian Villaart (circa 1485-1562). His students were the organist and composer Andrea Gabrieli (between 1500 and 1520 - after 1586), the composer Cyprian de Pope (1515 or 1516-1565) and other musicians. If the works of Palestrina are characterized by clarity and strict restraint, then Willart and his followers developed a magnificent choral style. To achieve surround sound, play of timbres, they used several choirs in the compositions, located in different places of the temple. The use of roll calls between the choirs made it possible to fill the church space with unprecedented effects. This approach reflected the humanistic ideals of the era as a whole - with its cheerfulness, freedom, and the Venetian artistic tradition itself - with its desire for everything bright and unusual. In the work of the Venetian masters, the musical language also became more complex: it was filled with bold combinations of chords, unexpected harmonies.

A striking figure of the Renaissance was Carlo Gesualdo di Venosa (circa 1560-1613), the prince of the city of Venosa, one of the greatest masters of the secular madrigal. He gained fame as a philanthropist, lute player, and composer. Prince Gesualdo was friends with the Italian poet Torquato Tasso; there remained the most interesting letters in which both artists discuss issues of literature, music, and fine arts. Gesualdo di Venosa set many of Tasso's poems to music - this is how a number of highly artistic madrigals appeared. As a representative of the late Renaissance, the composer developed a new type of madrigal, where feelings were in the first place - stormy and unpredictable. Therefore, his works are characterized by fluctuations in volume, intonations similar to sighs and even sobs, sharp-sounding chords, and contrasting changes in tempo. These techniques gave Gesualdo's music an expressive, somewhat bizarre character; it struck and at the same time attracted contemporaries. The heritage of Gesualdo di Venosa consists of seven collections of polyphonic madrigals; among spiritual compositions - "Sacred hymns". Even today his music does not leave the listener indifferent.

Development of genres and forms of instrumental music. Instrumental music is also marked by the emergence of new genres, most notably the instrumental concerto. Violin, harpsichord, organ gradually turned into solo instruments. The music written for them made it possible to show talent not only for the composer, but also for the performer. First of all, virtuosity was valued (the ability to cope with technical difficulties), which gradually became an end in itself and artistic value for many musicians. Composers of the 17th-18th centuries usually not only composed music, but also virtuoso played the instruments, and were engaged in pedagogical activities. The well-being of the artist largely depended on the specific customer. As a rule, every serious musician sought to get a place either at the court of a monarch or a wealthy aristocrat (many representatives of the nobility had their own orchestras or opera houses), or in a temple. Moreover, most composers easily combined church music-making with the service of a secular patron.

England. The cultural life of England during the Renaissance was closely connected with the Reformation. In the 16th century, Protestantism spread throughout the country. The Catholic Church lost its dominant position, the Anglican Church became the state, which refused to recognize some dogmas (basic provisions) of Catholicism; most of the monasteries ceased to exist. These events had an impact on English culture, including music. Music departments were opened at Oxford and Cambridge universities. In the salons of the nobility, keyboard instruments sounded: virginel (a type of harpsichord), a portable (small) organ, etc. Small compositions intended for home music playing were popular. The most prominent representative of the musical culture of that time was William Byrd (1543 or 1544-1623) - music publisher, organist and composer. Bird became the ancestor of the English madrigal. His works are notable for their simplicity (he avoided complex polyphonic devices), the originality of the form that follows the text, and the harmonic freedom. All musical means are called upon to affirm the beauty and joy of life, as opposed to medieval rigor and restraint. In the madrigal genre, the composer had many followers.

Bird also created spiritual works (masses, psalms) and instrumental music. In compositions for the virginal, he used the motives of folk songs and dances.

The composer really wanted the music he wrote to "happily carry at least a little tenderness, relaxation and entertainment," William Byrd wrote in the preface to one of his music collections.

Germany. The connection of German musical culture with the Reformation movement. In the 16th century, the Reformation began in Germany, which significantly changed the religious and cultural life of the country. The reformers were convinced of the need for changes in the musical content of worship. This was due to two reasons. By the middle of the XV century. the polyphonic skill of composers who worked in the genres of church music reached extraordinary complexity and sophistication. Sometimes works were created that, due to the melodic richness of voices and lengthy chants, could not be perceived and spiritually experienced by the majority of parishioners. In addition, the service was conducted in Latin, understandable to the Italians, but alien to the Germans.

The founder of the Reformation movement, Martin Luther (1483-1546), believed that a reform of church music was needed. Music, firstly, should contribute to a more active participation of parishioners in worship (this was impossible when performing polyphonic compositions), and secondly, to give rise to empathy for biblical events (which was hindered by the conduct of the service in Latin). Thus, the following requirements were imposed on church singing: simplicity and clarity of melody, even rhythm, and a clear form of chanting. On this basis, the Protestant chant arose - the main genre of church music of the German Renaissance. In 1522, Luther translated the New Testament into German - henceforth it became possible to worship in the native language.

Luther himself, as well as his friend, the German music theorist Johann Walter (1490-1570), took an active part in the selection of melodies for the chorales. The main sources of such melodies were folk spiritual and secular songs - widely known and easy to understand. Melodies for some of the chorales Luther composed himself. One of them, "The Lord is our rock", became a symbol of the Reformation during the religious wars of the 16th century.

Meistersingers and their art. Another bright page of the German music of the Renaissance is associated with the work of the Meistersingers (German: Meistersinger - "master singer") - poets and singers from the artisans' milieu. They were not professional musicians, but primarily craftsmen - gunsmiths, tailors, glaziers, shoemakers, bakers, etc. Representatives of various crafts were included in the city union of such musicians. In the 16th century, Meistersinger associations existed in many German cities.

Meistersingers composed their songs according to strict rules, creative initiative was constrained by many restrictions. A beginner had to first master these rules, then learn how to sing songs, then compose lyrics to other people's melodies, and only then he could create his own song. The tunes of the famous Meistersingers and Minnesingers were considered as sample melodies.

An outstanding mastersinger of the 16th century. Hans Sachs (1494-1576) came from a tailor's family, but in his youth he left his parental home and went to travel around Germany. During his wanderings, the young man learned the craft of a shoemaker, but most importantly, he got acquainted with folk art. Sachs was well educated, knew ancient and medieval literature very well, and read the Bible in German translation. He was deeply imbued with the ideas of the Reformation, therefore he wrote not only secular songs, but also spiritual ones (about six thousand songs in total). Hans Sachs also became famous as a playwright (see the article "Theatrical Art of the Renaissance").

Musical instruments of the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, the composition of musical instruments expanded significantly, new varieties were added to the already existing strings and winds. Among them, a special place is occupied by violas - a family of bowed strings that amaze with the beauty and nobility of sound. In form, they resemble instruments of the modern violin family (violin, viola, cello) and are even considered their immediate predecessors (they coexisted in musical practice until the middle of the 18th century). However, there is a difference, and a significant one. Violas have a system of resonating strings; as a rule, there are as many of them as the main ones (six to seven). The vibrations of the resonating strings make the viola sound soft, velvety, but it is difficult to use the instrument in an orchestra, because due to the large number of strings it quickly gets out of tune.

For a long time, the sound of the viola was considered a model of sophistication in music. There are three main types in the viola family. Viola da gamba is a large instrument that the performer placed vertically and pinched from the sides with his feet (the Italian word gamba means "knee"). Two other varieties - viola da braccio (from it. braccio - "forearm") and viol d "amour (fr. viole d" amour - "viola of love") were oriented horizontally, and when played they were pressed against the shoulder. The viola da gamba is close to the cello in terms of sound range, the viola da braccio is close to the violin, and the viol d'amour is close to the viola.

Among the plucked instruments of the Renaissance, the lute (Polish lutnia, from Arabic "alud" - "tree") occupies the main place. It came to Europe from the Middle East at the end of the 14th century, and by the beginning of the 16th century there was a huge repertoire for this instrument; First of all, songs were sung to the accompaniment of the lute. The lute has a short body; the upper part is flat, and the lower part resembles a hemisphere. A neck is attached to the wide neck, divided by frets, and the head of the instrument is bent back almost at a right angle. If you wish, you can see the resemblance to a bowl in the shape of a lute. Twelve strings are grouped in pairs, and the sound is extracted both with fingers and with a special plate - a plectrum.

In the XV-XVI centuries, various types of keyboards arose. The main types of such instruments - harpsichord, clavichord, cembalo, virginal - were actively used in the music of the Renaissance, but their real heyday came later.