Impressionism period. The main directions of modernism

The term "impressionism" arose with the light hand of the critic of the magazine Le Charivari Louis Leroywho titled his feuilleton about the Salon of the Les Misérables "Impressionist Exhibition", taking as a basis the title of the painting by Claude Monet "Impression. Rising sun" (fr. Impression, soleil levant). Initially, this term was somewhat disparaging, indicating a corresponding attitude towards artists who wrote in a new "careless" manner.

Impressionism in painting

origins

By the mid-1880s, impressionism gradually ceased to exist as a single direction, and disintegrated, giving a noticeable impetus to the evolution of art. By the beginning of the 20th century, the trend away from realism gained momentum, and a new generation of artists turned away from impressionism.

The emergence of the name

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, a new leap in the development of science and technology took place in most countries of Western Europe. Industrial culture has done a great job of strengthening the spiritual foundations of society, overcoming rationalistic guidelines and cultivating the human in man. She very keenly felt the need for beauty, for the approval of an aesthetically developed personality, for the deepening of real humanism, taking practical steps to embody freedom, equality, and the harmonization of social relations.

During this period, France was going through a difficult time. The Franco-Prussian War, a short bloody uprising and the fall of the Paris Commune marked the end of the Second Empire.

After clearing the ruins left by the terrible Prussian bombardments and the furious civil war, Paris once again proclaimed itself the center of European art.

After all, it became the capital of European artistic life back in the time of King Louis XIV, when the Academy and annual art exhibitions were established, which received the names of the Salons - from the so-called Square Salon in the Louvre, where new works by painters and sculptors were exhibited every year. In the 19th century, it was the Salons, where a sharp artistic struggle would unfold, that would reveal new trends in art.

The acceptance of the painting for the exhibition, the approval of its jury of the Salon, was the first step towards the public recognition of the artist. Since the 1850s, the Salons have increasingly turned into grandiose reviews of works selected to suit official tastes, which is why the expression "salon art" even appeared. Pictures that did not correspond in any way to this nowhere prescribed, but rigid "standard", were simply rejected by the jury. The press discussed in every way which artists were admitted to the Salon and which were not, turning almost every one of these annual exhibitions into a public scandal.

In the years 1800-1830, Dutch and English landscape painters began to influence French landscape painting and fine art in general. Eugene Delacroix, a representative of romanticism, brought to his paintings a new brightness of colors and virtuosity of writing. He was an admirer of Constable, who strove for a new naturalism. Delacroix's radical approach to color and his technique of applying large strokes of paint to enhance form would later be developed by the Impressionists.

Of particular interest to Delacroix and his contemporaries were Constable's studies. Trying to capture the infinitely changing properties of light and color, Delacroix noticed that in nature they "never stay still." Therefore, the French romantics got into the habit of painting in oils and watercolors faster, but by no means superficial sketches of individual scenes.

By the middle of the century, the realists, led by Gustave Courbet, became the most significant phenomenon in painting. After 1850 in French art for a decade there was an unprecedented fragmentation of styles, partly permissible, but never approved by the authorities. These experiments pushed young artists on a path that was a logical continuation of the trends that had already emerged, but seemed stunningly revolutionary to the public and arbitrators of the Salon.

Art, which occupied a dominant position in the halls of the Salon, was distinguished, as a rule, by external craft and technical virtuosity, interest in anecdotal, entertainingly told plots of a sentimental, everyday, sham historical nature and an abundance of mythological plots that justify all kinds of images of a naked body. It was an eclectic and entertainingly unprincipled art. Relevant personnel were trained under the auspices of the Academy by the School of Fine Arts, where such masters of late academicism as Couture, Cabanel and others ran the whole business. Salon art was distinguished by exceptional vitality, artistic vulgarization, spiritually uniting and adapting the achievements of the main creative quests of its time to the level of philistine tastes of the public.

The art of the Salon was opposed by various realistic trends. Their representatives were the best masters of the French artistic culture of those decades. The work of realist artists is associated with them, continuing in the new conditions the thematic traditions of realism of the 40-50s. 19th century - Bastien-Lepage, Lermitte and others. Of decisive importance for the fate of the artistic development of France and Western Europe as a whole were the innovative realistic quests of Edouard Manet and Auguste Rodin, the sharply expressive art of Edgar Degas, and, finally, the work of a group of artists who most consistently embodied the principles of impressionist art: Claude Monet, Pissarro, Sisley and Renoir. It was their work that marked the beginning of the rapid development of the period of impressionism.

Impressionism (from the French impression-impression), a trend in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, whose representatives sought to most naturally and impartially capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions.

Impressionism constituted an era in French art in the second half of the 19th century and then spread to all European countries. He reformed artistic tastes, rebuilt visual perception. In essence, it was a natural continuation and development of the realistic method. The art of the Impressionists is just as democratic as the art of their direct predecessors, it does not distinguish between "high" and "low" nature and completely trusts the testimony of the eye. The way of "looking" changes - it becomes the most intent and at the same time more lyrical. The connection with romanticism is being eroded - the impressionists, as well as the realists of the older generation, want to deal only with modernity, avoiding historical, mythological and literary themes. For great aesthetic discoveries, the simplest, daily observed motifs were enough for them: Parisian cafes, streets, modest gardens, the banks of the Seine, the surrounding villages.

The Impressionists lived in an era of struggle between modernity and tradition. We see in their works a radical and stunning for that time break with the traditional principles of art, the culmination, but not the end of the search for a new look. The abstractionism of the 20th century was born out of experiments with the art that existed then, just as the innovations of the Impressionists grew out of the work of Courbet, Corot, Delacroix, Constable, as well as the old masters who preceded them.

The Impressionists abandoned the traditional distinction between study, sketch and painting. They started and finished work right in the open air - in the open air. If they had to finish something in the studio, they still tried to preserve the feeling of a captured moment and convey the light-air atmosphere that envelops the objects.

Plein air is the key to their method. In this way they have reached an exceptional subtlety of perception; they managed to reveal in the relationship of light, air and color such enchanting effects that they had not noticed before, and without the painting of the Impressionists, they probably would not have noticed. Not without reason, they said that Monet invented the fogs of London, although the Impressionists did not invent anything, relying only on the testimony of the eye, without adding to them prior knowledge of the depicted.

Indeed, the Impressionists most of all valued the contact of the soul with nature, attaching great importance to direct impression, observation of various phenomena of the surrounding reality. No wonder they patiently waited for clear warm days to write in the open air in the open air.

But the creators of a new type of beauty never sought to carefully imitate, copy, objectively "portrait" nature. In their works there is not just a virtuoso operation of the world of impressive appearances. The essence of impressionistic aesthetics lies in the amazing ability to condense beauty, highlight the depth of a unique phenomenon, fact and recreate the poetics of a transformed reality, warmed by the warmth of the human soul. Thus, a qualitatively different, aesthetically attractive world, saturated with spiritualized radiance, emerges.

As a result of the impressionistic touch on the world, everything, at first glance, ordinary, prosaic, trivial, momentary was transformed into poetic, attractive, festive, striking everything with the penetrating magic of light, richness of colors, quivering highlights, vibration of the air and faces radiating purity. In contrast to academic art, which was based on the canons of classicism - the obligatory placement of the main characters in the center of the picture, the three-dimensionality of space, the use of a historical plot for the purpose of a very specific semantic orientation of the viewer - the Impressionists stopped dividing objects into main and secondary, sublime and low. From now on, the picture could embody multi-colored shadows from objects, a haystack, a lilac bush, a crowd on a Parisian boulevard, the colorful life of a market, laundresses, dancers, saleswomen, the light of gas lamps, a railway line, a bullfight, seagulls, rocks, peonies.

The Impressionists are characterized by a keen interest in all the phenomena of everyday life. But this did not mean some kind of omnivorous, promiscuous. In ordinary, everyday phenomena, the moment was chosen when the harmony of the surrounding world manifested itself most impressively. The impressionistic worldview was extremely responsive to the most subtle shades of the same color, the state of an object or phenomenon.

In 1841, the London-based American portraitist John Goffrand first conceived the idea of ​​a tube to extrude paint, and paint dealers Winsor and Newton quickly picked up the idea. Pierre Auguste Renoir, according to his son, said: “Without paints in tubes, there would be no Cezanne, no Monet, no Sisley, no Pissarro, none of those whom journalists later dubbed the Impressionists.”

The paint in the tubes had the consistency of fresh oil, ideal for applying thick, pasty strokes of a brush or even a spatula to canvas; both methods were used by the Impressionists.

In new tubes, the whole range of bright, stable paints began to appear on the market. Advances in chemistry at the beginning of the century brought new paints, for example, cobalt blue, artificial ultramarine, yellow chrome with orange, red, green, tint, emerald green, white zinc, durable white lead. By the 1850s, artists had at their disposal a palette of colors that was bright, reliable and comfortable as never before. .

The Impressionists did not pass by the scientific discoveries of the middle of the century concerning optics, color decomposition. Complementary colors of the spectrum (red - green, blue - orange, lilac - yellow) enhance each other when adjacent, and when mixed, they become colorless. Any color placed on a white background seems to be surrounded by a slight halo from a complementary color; in the same place and in the shadows cast by objects, when they are illuminated by the sun, a color appears, additional to the color of the object. Partly intuitively, and partly consciously, artists used such scientific observations. For impressionistic painting, they were especially important. The Impressionists took into account the laws of perception of color at a distance and, if possible, avoiding mixing colors on the palette, arranged pure colorful strokes so that they mixed in the eye of the viewer. The light tones of the solar spectrum are one of the commandments of impressionism. They refused black, brown tones, because the solar spectrum does not have them. They conveyed shadows with color, not blackness, hence the soft shining harmony of their canvases. .

In general, the impressionistic type of beauty reflected the fact that the spiritual person was opposed to the process of urbanization, pragmatism, enslavement of feelings, which led to an increased need for a more complete disclosure of the emotional principle, actualization of the spiritual qualities of the individual and aroused a desire for a more acute experience of the spatio-temporal characteristics of being.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

impressionism

impressionism, pl. no, m. (fr. impressionisme) (art.). A direction in art that aims to convey, reproduce direct, subjective impressions of reality.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova.

impressionism

A, m. A direction in the art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. striving for a direct reproduction of the experiences, moods and impressions of the artist.

adj. impressionistic, -th, -th and impressionistic, -th, -th.

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

impressionism

m. A direction in the art of the last third of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century, based on the desire to reflect the real world in its mobility, variability and capture the artist's, composer's own feelings, etc.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

impressionism

IMPRESSIONISM (from the French impression - impression) a direction in the art of the last third of the 19th - early. 20 centuries, whose representatives strove to capture the real world in its mobility and variability in the most natural and unbiased way, to convey their fleeting impressions. Impressionism originated in the 1860s, in French painting: E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas introduced freshness and immediacy of perception of life into art, the image of instantaneous, as it were, random movements and situations, apparent imbalance, fragmentary composition, unexpected points of view, angles, cuts of figures. In the 1870-80s. impressionism was formed in the French landscape: C. Monet, C. Pissarro, A. Sisley developed a consistent plein air system; working in the open air, they created a feeling of sparkling sunlight, the richness of the colors of nature, the dissolution of three-dimensional forms in the vibration of light and air. The decomposition of complex tones into pure colors (imposed on the canvas in separate strokes and designed for their optical mixing in the eye of the viewer), colored shadows and reflections gave rise to an unparalleled light, quivering painting. In addition to painters (American - J. Whistler, German - M. Lieberman, L. Corinth, Russian - K. A. Korovin, I. E. Grabar), sculptors perceived the interest of impressionism in instantaneous movement, fluid form (French - O. Rodin , Italian - M. Rosso, Russian - P. P. Trubetskoy). For musical impressionism con. 19 - beg. 20th century (in France - C. Debussy, partly M. Ravel, P. Duke, etc.), which developed under the influence of impressionism in painting, are characterized by the transmission of subtle moods, psychological nuances, an inclination towards landscape programming, an interest in timbre and harmonic colorfulness. The literature speaks about the features of the impressionistic style in relation to European literature of the last third of the 19th century, Russian poetry of the beginning. 20th century (K. Hamsun in Norway, I. F. Annensky in Russia, etc.).

Impressionism

(French impressionnisme, from impression ≈ impression), a direction in the art of the last third of the 19th ≈ early 20th centuries. I. took shape in French painting in the late 1860s and early 1870s. At the time of his maturity (the 1870s - the first half of the 1880s), I. was represented by a group of artists (C. Monet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, C. Pissarro, A. Sisley, B. Morisot and others .), united to fight for the renewal of art and overcoming the official salon academicism and organized 8 exhibitions from 1874 to 1886 for this purpose; E. Manet, who back in the 1860s. predetermined the orientation of I. and which also in the 1870s-80s. was associated with him in many respects, was not included in this group. Title "I." arose after the exhibition of 1874, which exhibited the painting by C. Monet “Impression. Rising Sun” (“Impression, Soleil levant”, 1872, now in the Musée Marmottan, Paris).

I. continues what the realistic art of the 1840s-60s began. liberation from the conventions of classicism, romanticism and academicism and affirms the beauty of everyday reality, simple, democratic motives, achieves a living authenticity of the image. I. makes authentic, modern life aesthetically significant in its naturalness, in all the richness and sparkle of its colors, capturing the visible world in its inherent constant variability, recreating the unity of man and his environment. Emphasizing, as it were, a transient moment of the continuous flow of life, as if accidentally caught by the eye, the Impressionists abandon the narration, the plot. In their landscapes, portraits, and multi-figured compositions, the artists strive to preserve the impartiality, strength, and freshness of the “first impression,” which allows them to capture the uniquely characteristic in what they see, without going into individual details. Depicting the world as an ever-changing optical phenomenon, I. does not seek to emphasize its constant, deep qualities. The knowledge of the world in visual arts is based mainly on sophisticated observation, the visual experience of the artist, who uses works and the laws of natural optical perception to achieve artistic persuasiveness. The process of this perception, its dynamics are reflected in the structure of the work, which, in turn, actively directs the viewer's perception of the picture. However, the emphasized empiricism of the method of visualization, which made it related to naturalism, sometimes led representatives of visual arts to self-sufficient visual-painting experiments that limited the possibilities of artistic knowledge of the essential moments of reality. In general, the works of the Impressionists are distinguished by cheerfulness, enthusiasm for the sensual beauty of the world; and only in some works of Degas and Manet there are bitter, sarcastic notes.

The Impressionists for the first time create a multifaceted picture of the everyday life of a modern city, conveying the originality of its landscape and the appearance of the people inhabiting it, their way of life and, less often, work; The theme of specifically urban entertainment also appears in India. At the same time, in the art of I., the moment of social criticism is weakening. Striving for a truthful depiction of everyday nature close to man, the Impressionist landscape painters (especially Pissarro and Sisley) develop the traditions of the Barbizon school. Continuing the plein air (see Plein air) searches of J. Constable, the Barbizons, as well as C. Corot, E. Boudin and J. B. Jongkind, the Impressionists developed a complete plein air system. In their landscapes, the everyday motif is often transformed by the all-penetrating, moving sunlight, which brings a sense of festivity into the picture. Working on a painting directly in the open air made it possible to reproduce nature in all its real vivacity, to subtly analyze and instantly capture its transitional states, to capture the slightest color changes that appear under the influence of a vibrating and fluid light-air medium (organically uniting man and nature), which sometimes it becomes in I. an independent object of the image (mainly in the works of Monet). In order to preserve the freshness and variety of colors of nature in the picture, the Impressionists (with the exception of Degas) created a pictorial system that is distinguished by the decomposition of complex tones into pure colors and the interpenetration of separate strokes of pure color, as if blending in the eye of the viewer, by light and bright colors, by the richness of the valères. and reflexes, colored shadows. Volumetric forms, as it were, dissolve in the light-air shell that envelops them, dematerialize, acquire unsteadiness of outlines: the play of various strokes, pasty and liquid, gives the colorful layer a quivering, relief; this creates a peculiar impression of incompleteness, the formation of an image in front of a person contemplating the canvas. All this is connected with the artist’s desire to preserve in the picture the effect of improvisation, which in the previous era was allowed only in sketches and which usually disappeared when they were processed into finished works .; Thus, in I. there is a rapprochement between the study and the picture, and often the merging of several stages of work into one continuous process. An impressionistic picture is a separate frame, a fragment of a moving world. This explains, on the one hand, the equivalence of all parts of the picture, simultaneously born under the artist's brush and equally participating in the figurative construction of the work; on the other hand, apparent randomness and imbalance, asymmetry of composition, bold cuts of figures, unexpected points of view and complex angles that activate spatial construction; losing depth, space sometimes “turns out” onto a plane or goes to infinity. In some methods of constructing composition and space, the influence of Japanese engraving and partly photography is noticeable.

By the mid 1880s. I., having exhausted its possibilities as an integral system and a single direction, disintegrates, giving impulses for the subsequent evolution of art. I. introduced new themes into art, comprehending the aesthetic significance of many aspects of reality. The works of mature I. are distinguished by their bright and immediate vitality. At the same time, I. is also characterized by the identification of aesthetic intrinsic value and new expressive possibilities of color, the emphasized aestheticization of the method of execution, and the exposure of the formal structure of the work; It is precisely these features, which are only emerging in I., that are further developed in Neo-Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. In the 1880≈1910s. I. had a significant influence on many painters in other countries (M. Lieberman, L. Corinth in Germany; K. A. Korovin, V. A. Serov, I. E. Grabar, early M. V. Larionov in Russia, etc.). ), which manifested itself in the development of new aspects of reality, in mastering the effects of the plein air, highlighting the palette, sketchy manner, mastering certain technical techniques. Certain principles of visual arts—the transmission of instantaneous movement and the fluidity of form—were reflected to varying degrees in sculpture in the 1880s and 1910s. (E. Degas and O. Rodin in France, M. Rosso in Italy, P. P. Trubetskoy and A. S. Golubkina in Russia); at the same time, the increased picturesqueness of impressionistic sculpture sometimes came into conflict with the tangibility and physicality inherent in the very nature of the sculptural image. The traditions of I. are palpable in many realistic movements in the art of the 20th century. I. in the visual arts had a certain influence on the formation of some principles of I. and on the development of expressive means in literature, music and theater; however, in these forms of art, art did not become an integral artistic system of milestone significance.

In relation to literature, style is widely regarded as a stylistic phenomenon that arose in the last third of the 19th century. and captured writers of various beliefs and methods, and narrowly - as a trend with a certain method and a worldview that gravitated towards decadence, which developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Signs of the “impressionistic style” are the absence of a clearly defined form and the desire to convey the subject in fragmentary, instantly fixing every impression strokes, which, however, revealed, when reviewing the whole, their hidden unity and connection. As a special style, I., with his principle of the value of the first impression, made it possible to narrate through such details, as if caught at random, which apparently violated the strict coherence of the narrative plan and the principle of selection of the essential, but with their “lateral” truth imparted to the story extraordinary brightness and freshness, and the artistic idea - unexpected branching and diversity. Remaining a stylistic phenomenon, I. did not mean, especially among great writers (for example, A. P. Chekhov, I. A. Bunin, etc.), breaking the artistic principles of realism, but affected the enrichment of these principles and the steadily increasing art of descriptions (for example, , Chekhov's description of a thunderstorm in the story "The Steppe"; features of I. in Chekhov's style were noted by L. N. Tolstoy). By the beginning of the 20th century several stylistic varieties of I. arose on a common realistic basis. The brothers J. and E. Goncourt (“poets of nerves”, “connoisseurs of imperceptible sensations”) were the founders of “psychological I.”, the sophisticated technique of which can be observed in the novel “Hunger” by K. Hamsun, in the early T. Mann (in short stories) , S. Zweig, in the lyrics of I. F. Annensky. “Plein air”, quivering picturesqueness is felt by the same Goncourt brothers, by E. Zola in the style of descriptions of Paris (“Page of Love”), by the Danish writer E. P. Jacobsen (in the short story “Mogens”); picturesquely expresses lyrical situations by means of impressionistic technique (including syntax and rhythm) by the German poet D. von Lilienkron. The English neo-romantic writers R. L. Stevenson and J. Conrad developed the exotic colorful properties of I.; their manner was continued in later literature on "southern" themes, up to the stories of S. Maugham. In P. Verlaine's Romances Without Words, the thrill of the soul and picturesque flickering (“some shades captivate us”) are accompanied by a musical mood, and his poem “Poetic Art” (1874, published 1882) sounds both like a manifesto of poetic I. and like foreshadowing the poetics of symbolism.

Later, Hamsun and some other writers of the early 20th century. I. to a lesser or greater extent is isolated from realistic principles and turns into a special vision and attitude (or method) - a vague, indefinite subjectivism, partially anticipating the literature of the "stream of consciousness" (the work of M. Proust). Such I., with his “philosophy of the moment,” questioned the semantic and moral foundations of life. The cult of "impression" locked man in himself; only that which is fleeting, elusive, inexpressible by anything but sensations became valuable and the only real. Fluid moods revolved predominantly around the theme of "love and death"; the artistic image was built on shaky understatements and vague hints that lifted the "veil" over the fatal play of unconscious elements in a person's life. Decadent motifs are characteristic of the Viennese school of I. (G. Bar; A. Schnitzler, especially his one-act plays The Green Parrot, 1899, The Puppets, 1906, etc.), in Poland - for J. Kasprowicz, K. Tetmayer . The impact of I. was experienced, for example, by O. Wilde, G. von Hofmannsthal (lyric poetry, including The Ballad of External Life; libretto dramas), in Russian literature - B. K. Zaitsev (psychological studies), K. D. Balmont (with his lyrics of "transiency"). By the middle of the 20th century I. as an independent method has exhausted itself.

The use of the term "I." Musical painting is in many respects conditional—musical painting does not constitute a direct analogy with painting and does not coincide chronologically with it (its heyday was in the 1990s and the first decade of the 20th century). The main thing in musical I. is the transmission of moods that acquire the meaning of symbols, subtle psychological nuances, and a tendency towards poetic landscape programming. He is also characterized by refined fantasy, poetization of antiquity, exoticism, interest in timbre and harmonic brilliance. With the main line of I. in painting, he has in common an enthusiastic attitude to life; moments of acute conflicts, social contradictions in it bypass. The classical expression of musical I. found in the work of C. Debussy; its features also appeared in the music of M. Ravel, P. Duke, F. Schmitt, J. J. Roger-Ducas, and other French composers.

Musical I. inherited many features of the art of late romanticism and national musical schools of the 19th century. (“The Mighty Handful”, F. Liszt, E. Grieg and others). At the same time, the Impressionists contrasted the clear relief of contours, the purely materiality and oversaturation of the musical palette of the late romantics with the art of restrained emotions and transparent, stingy texture, and a fluent changeability of images.

The work of impressionist composers in many ways enriched the expressive means of music, especially the sphere of harmony, which reached great beauty and refinement; the complication of chord complexes is combined in it with the simplification and archaization of modal thinking; the orchestration is dominated by pure colors, whimsical reflections, rhythms unsteady and elusive. The brilliance of harmonic and timbre means comes to the fore: the expressive meaning of each sound, chord is enhanced, previously unknown possibilities for expanding the modal sphere are revealed. A special freshness to the music of the Impressionists was given by their frequent appeal to song and dance genres, to the elements of the musical language of the peoples of the East, Spain, and early forms of Negro jazz.

At the beginning of the 20th century musical I. spread beyond the borders of France. It was originally developed by M. de Falla in Spain, A. Casella and O. Respighi in Italy. Original features are inherent in English musical I. with its "northern" landscape (F. Delius) or spicy exoticism (S. Scott). In Poland, the exotic line of musical I. was represented by K. Szymanowski (until 1920), who gravitated toward ultra-refined images of antiquity and the Ancient East. Influence of I. aesthetics at the turn of the 20th century. some Russian composers also experienced it, in particular A. N. Scriabin, who was simultaneously influenced by symbolism; In the mainstream of Russian I., whimsically combined with the influence of the school of N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, I. F. Stravinsky began his journey, in subsequent years he led the anti-impressionist trend in Western European music.

O. V. Mamontova (I. in the fine arts), I. V. Nestiev (I. in music).

In the theater of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. the attention of directors and performers to conveying the atmosphere of the action, the mood of a particular scene, and revealing its subtext increased. At the same time, the authenticity and meaningfulness of life were conveyed with the help of deliberately cursory characteristics in combination with individual brightly expressive details that revealed the hero's shadowed experiences, his thoughts, and impulses of actions. Sudden changes in rhythms, the use of sounds, picturesque color spots were used by the stage director to create a certain emotional richness in the performance, through which the internal increase in drama, hidden behind the course of everyday life, was exposed. The expressive means of I. were used in the productions of A. Antoine (France), M. Reinhardt (Germany), V. E. Meyerhold (Russia), in the performances of the Moscow Art Theater (for example, in the productions of plays by A. P. Chekhov). Contemporaries noted the features of I. in the acting of G. Rezhan (France), E. Duse (Italy), V. F. Komissarzhevskaya, and other actors.

T. M. Motherland.

Lit .: Mauclair K., Impressionism. His history, his aesthetics, his masters, trans. from French, M.,; Meyer-Grefe Yu., Impressionists, trans. from German., M., 1913; Venturi L., From Manet to Lautrec, trans. from Italian., M., 1958; Rewald, J., A History of Impressionism, trans. from English, L.≈M., 1959; Impressionism, trans. from French, L., 1969; Chegodaev A. D., Impressionists, M., 1971; Bazin G., L "époque impressionniste, 2 ed., P., 1953; Leymarie J., L" impressionisme, v. 1≈2, Gen., 1959; Danckert W., Das Wesen des musikalischen Impressionismus, "Deutsche Vierteljiahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte", 1929, Bd 7, N. 1; Koelsch H. F., Der Impressionismus bei Debussy, Düsseldorf, 1937 (Diss.); Schulz H.≈G., Musikalischer Impressionismus und impressionistischer Klavierstil, Würzburg, 1938; Kroher, E., Impressionismus in der Musik, Lpz., 1957.

Wikipedia

Impressionism

Impressionism(, from impression- impression) - a trend in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which originated in France and then spread throughout the world, whose representatives sought to develop methods and techniques that made it possible to most naturally and vividly capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions. Usually, the term "impressionism" means a direction in painting, although its ideas were also embodied in literature and music, where impressionism also appeared in a certain set of methods and techniques for creating literary and musical works, in which the authors sought to convey life in a sensual, direct form as a reflection of their impressions.

The term "Impressionism" arose from the light hand of the critic of the magazine "Le Charivari" Louis Leroy, who titled his feuilleton about the Salon of the Les Misérables "Exhibition of the Impressionists", taking as a basis the title of the painting "Impression. Rising Sun by Claude Monet. Initially, this term was somewhat disparaging and indicated a corresponding attitude towards artists who painted in this manner.

Impressionism (disambiguation)

Impressionism

• Impressionism- direction in art.
• Impressionism is a musical direction.
• Impressionism is a trend in cinema.
• Impressionism is a literary style.

Impressionism (music)

musical impressionism- a musical trend similar to impressionism in painting and parallel to symbolism in literature, which developed in France in the last quarter of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century, primarily in the work of Eric Satie, Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel.

The starting point of "impressionism" in music can be considered 1886-1887, when the first impressionistic opuses of Erik Satie were published in Paris - and as a result, five years later, the first works of Claude Debussy in the new style, which received resonance in the professional environment (above all, "The Afternoon of a Faun").

Impressionism (literature)

Impressionism in literature- one of the literary styles that spread in the world in the late XIX - early XX centuries, based on associations.

Appeared under the influence of the eponymous European artistic style. Developed in many European countries, including Russia.

In literature, this style did not develop as a separate direction, and its features were reflected in naturalism and symbolism. The main features of the impressionist style were formulated by the Goncourt brothers in their work "Diary", where the phrase: "Seeing, feeling, expressing - this is all art", has become a central position for many writers.

Impressionism is expressed in the novels of Emile Zola. Also representatives of impressionism in literature are Thomas Mann, Oscar Wilde, Stefan Zweig. An example of poetic impressionism is Paul Verlaine's collection Romances Without Words (1874). In Russia, the influence of impressionism was experienced by Konstantin Balmont and Innokenty Annensky.

The mood of impressionism also touched dramaturgy (impressionist drama), where passive perception of the world, analysis of moods, states of mind invaded the plays, disparate impressions are concentrated in dialogues. These signs are reflected in the works of Arthur Schnitzler, Maurice Maeterlinck, Hugo von Hoffmanstl.

Impressionism in literature in particular, and in art in general, lost its importance in the mid-1920s.

Impressionism (cinema)

Impressionism in cinema- current in cinema.

Cinema, being a visual art, like painting, became the successor of the traditions of French Impressionist artists at the beginning of the 20th century. It appeared under the influence of the painting style of the same name and also developed mainly in France.

The term "film-impressionism" was introduced by Henri Langlois, a French film enthusiast, and was actively used by the film theorist Georges Sadoul. The French director and actor Abel Gance is considered to be a representative of film impressionism. A photogenic vision of reality and a visual reflection of psychological emotions became the program concept of a new trend formulated by Louis Delluc. The actress Eva Francis, Delluc's wife, played in many Impressionist films, among them "Fever" (1921) and "The Woman from Nowhere" (1922) by Delluc and "El Dorado" (1921) by L'Herbier.

The film impressionists believed that cinema should speak to the viewer in its own language, using only its own set of expressive means. They made a significant contribution to the theory and aesthetics of cinema. In the early 1920s, articles appeared in periodicals and books about the specifics of film impressionism, about the composition of the film image in it, about rhythm in cinema.

Examples of the use of the word impressionism in literature.

The passion for photography was, of course, embedded in the Japanese long before the invention of Daguerre - sincere impressionism, the desire to fix the moment.

This music is the younger sister of the poetic symbolism of Verlaine and Laforgue and impressionism in painting.

Opinions were exchanged on the steps, bad words flashed: impressionism, post impressionism and even symbolism.

This is the opposition of a camera obscura, working according to the Cartesian laws of linear perspective, impressionism with its spreading of the color layer over the surface, is extremely significant.

Germany, which gave the world Dürer and Cranach, was unable to put forward a single outstanding master in the field of modern fine art, although German expressionism in painting and the Munich urban school in architecture were interesting and original trends, and German artists reflected in their work all the evolutions and ups , which were typical for impressionism, Cubism and Dadaism.

This political impressionism, of course, does not honor the oppositional analytical minds.

picturesque style impressionism lies in the negation of the external form of real things and the reproduction of their internal form - a polychrome mass.

Although Ravel is rightly called an impressionist composer, however, the characteristic features impressionism manifested itself in him only in some works, while in the rest classical clarity and proportionality of structures, purity of style, clarity of lines and jewelry in finishing details prevail.

Subsequently, the composer attacked the epigones impressionism, contrasting its vagueness and refinement with the clarity, simplicity, and rigor of linear writing.

But not only this connected the Polish composer with the French impressionism: the years of the First World War include the formation of a new style of Szymanowski, a more modern harmonic language, which no longer fits into the framework of classical-romantic harmony.

Much really makes Debussy related to the picturesque impressionism: self-sufficing brilliance of elusive, fluid-moving moments, love for the landscape, airy trembling of space.

It is no coincidence that Debussy is considered the main representative impressionism in music.

Impressionism (impressionnisme) is a style of painting that appeared at the end of the 19th century in France and then spread throughout the world. The very idea of ​​impressionism lies in its name: impression - impression. Artists who were tired of the traditional techniques of painting academism, which, in their opinion, did not convey all the beauty and vivacity of the world, began to use completely new techniques and methods of depiction, which were supposed to express in the most accessible form not a “photographic” look, but an impression from what you see. In his painting, the impressionist artist, using the nature of strokes and color palette, tries to convey the atmosphere, heat or cold, strong wind or peaceful silence, foggy rainy morning or bright sunny afternoon, as well as his personal experiences from what he saw.

Impressionism is a world of feelings, emotions and fleeting impressions. It is not external realism or naturalness that is valued here, but the realism of the expressed sensations, the internal state of the picture, its atmosphere, depth. Initially, this style was heavily criticized. The first Impressionist paintings were exhibited at the Salon des Les Misérables in Paris, where works by artists rejected by the official Paris Art Salon were exhibited. For the first time the term "Impressionism" was used by the critic Louis Leroy, who wrote a disparaging review in the magazine "Le Charivari" about the exhibition of artists. As the basis for the term, he took the painting by Claude Monet “Impression. Rising Sun". He called all artists impressionists, which can be roughly translated as "impressionists." At first, the paintings were indeed criticized, but soon more and more fans of the new direction in art began to come to the salon, and the genre itself turned from an outcast into a recognized one.

It is worth noting that the artists of the late 19th century in France did not come up with a new style out of nowhere. They took as a basis the techniques of the painters of the past, including the artists of the Renaissance. Such painters as El Greco, Velasquez, Goya, Rubens, Turner and others, long before the advent of impressionism, tried to convey the mood of the picture, the liveliness of nature, the special expressiveness of the weather with the help of various intermediate tones, bright or vice versa dull strokes that looked like abstract things. In their paintings, they used it quite sparingly, so the unusual technique was not evident to the viewer. The Impressionists, on the other hand, decided to take these depiction methods as the basis for their works.

Another specific feature of the works of the Impressionists is a kind of superficial everydayness, which, however, contains incredible depth. They do not try to express any deep philosophical themes, mythological or religious tasks, historical and important events. The paintings of artists of this direction are inherently simple and everyday - landscapes, still lifes, people walking down the street or doing their usual things, and so on. It is precisely such moments where there is no excessive thematicity that distracts a person, feelings and emotions from what they see come to the fore. Also, the Impressionists, at least at the beginning of their existence, did not depict "heavy" topics - poverty, wars, tragedies, suffering, and so on. Impressionist paintings are most often the most positive and joyful works, where there is a lot of light, bright colors, smoothed chiaroscuro, smooth contrasts. Impressionism is a pleasant impression, the joy of life, the beauty of every moment, pleasure, purity, sincerity.

The most famous impressionists were such great artists as Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, Alfred Sisley, Camille Pissarro and many others.

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Alfred Sisley - Lawns in Spring

Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre. Afternoon, sunny.

In the last third of the XIX century. French art still plays a major role in the artistic life of Western European countries. At this time, many new trends appeared in painting, the representatives of which were looking for their own ways and forms of creative expression.

The most striking and significant phenomenon of French art of this period was impressionism.

The Impressionists announced themselves on April 15, 1874 at the Paris exhibition, held in the open air on the Boulevard des Capucines. Here, 30 young artists whose work was rejected by the Salon exhibited their paintings. The central place in the exposition was given to the painting by Claude Monet “Impression. Sunrise". This composition is interesting because for the first time in the history of painting, the artist tried to convey his impression on canvas, and not the object of reality.

The exhibition was visited by the representative of the Sharivari edition, reporter Louis Leroy. It was he who first called Monet and his associates "impressionists" (from the French impression - impression), thus expressing his negative assessment of their painting. Soon this ironic name lost its original negative meaning and entered the history of art forever.

The exhibition on Boulevard des Capucines became a kind of manifesto that proclaimed the emergence of a new trend in painting. It was attended by O. Renoir, E. Degas, A. Sisley, C. Pissarro, P. Cezanne, B. Morisot, A. Guillaumin, as well as masters of the older generation - E. Boudin, C. Daubigny, I. Jonkind.

The most important thing for the Impressionists was to convey the impression of what they saw, to capture on canvas a brief moment of life. In this way, the Impressionists resembled photographers. The plot didn't really matter to them. The artists took the themes for their paintings from the everyday life around them. They painted quiet streets, evening cafes, rural landscapes, city buildings, artisans at work. An important role in their paintings was played by the play of light and shadow, sunbeams jumping over objects and giving them a slightly unusual and surprisingly lively look. In order to see objects in natural light, to convey the changes that occur in nature at different times of the day, the impressionist artists left their workshops and went into the open air (plein air).

The Impressionists used a new painting technique: they did not mix paints on an easel, but immediately applied them to the canvas in separate strokes. This technique made it possible to convey a sense of dynamics, slight fluctuations in the air, the movement of leaves on trees and water in the river.

Usually the paintings of representatives of this direction did not have a clear composition. The artist transferred to the canvas a moment snatched from life, so his work resembled a photographic frame taken by accident. The Impressionists did not adhere to the clear boundaries of the genre, for example, the portrait often looked like a domestic scene.

From 1874 to 1886, the Impressionists organized 8 exhibitions, after which the group broke up. As for the public, it, like most critics, perceived the new art with hostility (for example, C. Monet’s painting was called “daub”), so many artists representing this trend lived in extreme poverty, sometimes without the means to finish what they started picture. And only by the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. the situation has changed radically.

In their work, the Impressionists used the experience of their predecessors: romantic artists (E. Delacroix, T. Gericault), realists (C. Corot, G. Courbet). The landscapes of J. Constable had a great influence on them.

E. Manet played a significant role in the emergence of a new trend.

Edouard Manet

Edouard Manet, born in 1832 in Paris, is one of the most significant figures in the history of world painting, who laid the foundation for impressionism.

The formation of his artistic worldview was largely influenced by the defeat of the French bourgeois revolution of 1848. This event excited the young Parisian so much that he decided to take a desperate step and fled home, becoming a sailor on a sea sailing ship. However, in the future, he did not travel much, giving all his mental and physical strength to work.

Manet's parents, cultured and wealthy people, dreamed of an administrative career for their son, but their hopes were not destined to come true. Painting - that's what interested the young man, and in 1850 he entered the School of Fine Arts, in the workshop of Couture, where he received good professional training. It was here that the novice artist felt disgust for the academic and salon cliches in art, which cannot fully reflect what is subject only to a real master with his individual style of writing.

Therefore, after studying for some time in the workshop of Couture and gaining experience, Manet leaves it in 1856 and turns to the canvases of his great predecessors exhibited in the Louvre, copying and carefully studying them. The works of such masters as Titian, D. Velazquez, F. Goya and E. Delacroix had a great influence on his creative views; the young artist bowed before the latter. In 1857, Manet visited the great maestro and asked for permission to make several copies of his "Dante's Barque", which have survived to this day in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in Lyon.

second half of the 1860s. the artist devoted himself to the study of museums in Spain, England, Italy and Holland, where he copied paintings by Rembrandt, Titian, and others. In 1861, his works “Portrait of Parents” and “Guitarist” received critical acclaim and were awarded an “Honorable Mention”.

The study of the work of old masters (mainly Venetians, Spaniards of the 17th century, and later F. Goya) and its rethinking leads to the fact that by the 1860s. there is a contradiction in Manet's art, manifested in the imposition of a museum imprint on some of his early paintings, which include: The Spanish Singer (1860), partly The Boy with the Dog (1860), The Old Musician (1862).

As for the heroes, the artist, like the realists of the middle of the 19th century, finds them in the seething Parisian crowd, among those walking in the Tuileries garden and regular cafe visitors. Basically, this is a bright and colorful world of bohemia - poets, actors, artists, models, participants in the Spanish bullfight: “Music at the Tuileries” (1860), “Street Singer” (1862), “Lola from Valencia” (1862), “Breakfast at grass" (1863), "Flutist" (1866), "Portrait of E. Zsl" (1868).

Among the early canvases, a special place is occupied by the "Portrait of the Parents" (1861), which is a very accurate realistic sketch of the appearance and character of the elderly couple. The aesthetic significance of the picture lies not only in a detailed penetration into the spiritual world of the characters, but also in how accurately the combination of observation and richness of pictorial development is conveyed, indicating knowledge of the artistic traditions of E. Delacroix.

Another canvas, which is the painter's program work and, it must be said, is very typical of his early work, is "Breakfast on the Grass" (1863). In this picture, Manet took a certain plot composition, completely devoid of any significance.

The picture may well be considered as an image of the breakfast of two artists in the bosom of nature, surrounded by female models (in fact, the artist’s brother Eugene Manet, F. Lenkof, and one female model, Quiz Meran, posed for the picture, whose services Manet resorted to quite often). One of them entered the stream, and the other, naked, sits in the company of two men dressed in artistic fashion. As you know, the motive of comparing a dressed male and a naked female body is traditional and goes back to Giorgione's painting "Country Concert", located in the Louvre.

The compositional arrangement of the figures partially reproduces the famous Renaissance engraving by Marcantonio Raimondi from a painting by Raphael. This canvas, as it were, polemically asserts two interrelated positions. One is the need to overcome the cliches of salon art, which has lost its true connection with a great artistic tradition, and to turn directly to the realism of the Renaissance and the 17th century, that is, the true primary sources of realistic art of the new time. Another provision confirms the right and duty of the artist to portray the characters around him from everyday life. At that time, this combination carried a certain contradiction. Most believed that a new stage in the development of realism could not be achieved by filling old compositional schemes with new types and characters. But Edouard Manet managed to overcome the duality of the principles of painting in his early period of creativity.

However, despite the traditional nature of the plot and composition, as well as the presence of paintings by salon masters depicting naked mythical beauties in frank seductive poses, Manet's painting caused a big scandal among modern bourgeois. The audience was shocked by the juxtaposition of a naked female body with prosaically everyday, modern male attire.

As for the pictorial norms, Luncheon on the Grass was written in a compromise, characteristic of the 1860s. manner, characterized by a tendency to dark colors, black shadows, as well as not always consistent appeal to plein air lighting and open color. If we turn to a preliminary sketch made in watercolor, then on it (more than on the picture itself) it is noticeable how great the master's interest in new pictorial problems is.

The painting "Olympia" (1863), in which the outline of a reclining naked woman is given, seems to refer to generally accepted compositional traditions - a similar image is found in Giorgione, Titian, Rembrandt and D. Velazquez. However, in his creation, Manet follows a different path, following F. Goya (“Naked Maha”) and rejecting the mythological motivation of the plot, the interpretation of the image introduced by the Venetians and partially preserved by D. Velasquez (“Venus with a Mirror”).

"Olympia" is not at all a poetically rethought image of female beauty, but an expressive, masterfully executed portrait, accurately and, one might even say, somewhat coldly conveying the resemblance to Quiz Meran, Manet's constant model. The painter reliably shows the natural pallor of the body of a modern woman who is afraid of the sun's rays. While the old masters emphasized the poetic beauty of the naked body, the musicality and harmony of its rhythms, Manet focuses on conveying the motives of life's specificity, completely departing from the poetic idealization inherent in his predecessors. Thus, for example, the gesture of George's Venus with the left hand in Olympia acquires an almost vulgar connotation in its indifference. Extremely characteristic is the indifferent, but at the same time attentively fixing the viewer's gaze of the model, opposed to the self-absorption of Venus Giorgione and the sensitive dreaminess of Titian's Venus of Urbino.

In this picture, there are signs of a transition to the next stage in the development of the painter's creative manner. There is a rethinking of the usual compositional scheme, which consists in prosaic observation and pictorial and artistic vision of the world. The juxtaposition of instantly seized sharp contrasts contributes to the destruction of the balanced compositional harmony of the old masters. Thus, the statics of a posing model and the dynamics in the images of a black woman and a black cat bending its back collide. The changes also affect the technique of painting, which gives a new understanding of the figurative tasks of the artistic language. Edouard Manet, like many other impressionists, in particular Claude Monet and Camille Pissarro, abandons the outdated system of painting that developed in the 17th century. (underpainting, writing, glazing). From that time on, canvases began to be painted using a technique called “a la prima”, which was distinguished by greater immediacy, emotionality, close to etudes and sketches.

The period of transition from early to mature creativity, which occupies almost the entire second half of the 1860s for Manet, is represented by such paintings as Flutist (1866), Balcony (c. 1868-1869) and others.

On the first canvas, against a neutral olive-gray background, a boy-musician is depicted, raising a flute to his lips. The expressiveness of a barely perceptible movement, the rhythmic echo of the iridescent gold buttons on the blue uniform with the light and quick sliding of the fingers along the flute holes speak of the innate artistry and subtle powers of observation of the master. Despite the fact that the style of painting here is quite dense, the color is weighty, and the artist has not yet turned to the open air, this canvas, to a greater extent than all the others, anticipates the mature period of Manet's work. As for the Balcony, it is closer to the Olympia than to the works of the 1870s.

In 1870-1880. Manet becomes the leading painter of his time. And although the Impressionists considered him their ideological leader and inspirer, and he himself always agreed with them in interpreting the fundamental views on art, his work is much broader and does not fit into the framework of any one direction. The so-called impressionism of Manet, in fact, is closer to the art of Japanese masters. He simplifies the motives, balancing the decorative and the real, creates a generalized idea of ​​what he saw: a pure impression, devoid of distracting details, an expression of the joy of sensation (“On the Seashore”, 1873).

In addition, as the dominant genre, he seeks to preserve a compositionally complete picture, where the main place is given to the image of a person. Manet's art is the final stage in the development of a centuries-old tradition of realistic narrative painting, which originated in the Renaissance.

In the later works of Manet, there is a tendency to move away from a detailed interpretation of the details of the environment surrounding the portrayed hero. Thus, in the portrait of Mallarme, full of nervous dynamics, the artist focuses on the poet's gesture, as if accidentally peeped, who, in a dreamy way, put his hand with a smoking cigar on the table. With all the sketchiness, the main thing in the character and mental warehouse of Mallarme is captured surprisingly accurately, with great persuasiveness. The in-depth characterization of the inner world of the individual, characteristic of the portraits of J. L. David and J. O. D. Ingres, is replaced here by a sharper and more direct characterization. Such is the gently poetic portrait of Berthe Morisot with a fan (1872) and the graceful pastel image of George Moore (1879).

In the painter's work there are works related to historical themes and major events in public life. However, it should be noted that these canvases are less successful, because problems of this kind were alien to his artistic talent, the circle of ideas and ideas about life.

So, for example, an appeal to the events of the Civil War between the North and South in the United States resulted in the image of the sinking of the corsair ship of the southerners by the northerners (“Battle of the Kirsezh” with the “Alabama”, 1864), and the episode can be more attributed to the landscape, where the military ships act as staffing. "The Execution of Maximilian" (1867), in essence, has the character of a genre sketch, devoid of not only interest in the conflict of the struggling Mexicans, but also the very drama of the event.

The theme of modern history was touched upon by Manet in the days of the Paris Commune (The Execution of the Communards, 1871). The sympathetic attitude towards the Communards does credit to the author of the picture, who has never been interested in such events before. But nevertheless, its artistic value is lower than other canvases, since in fact the compositional scheme of “The Execution of Maximilian” is repeated here, and the author is limited to just a sketch that does not at all reflect the meaning of the cruel collision of two opposing worlds.

In the subsequent time, Manet no longer turned to a historical genre alien to him, preferring to reveal the artistic and expressive beginning in episodes, finding them in the flow of everyday life. At the same time, he carefully selected especially characteristic moments, sought out the most expressive point of view, and then reproduced them with great skill in his paintings.

The charm of most of the creations of this period is due not so much to the significance of the event depicted as to the dynamism and witty observation of the author.

A remarkable example of an open-air group composition is the painting “In a Boat” (1874), where the combination of the outline of the stern of a sailboat, the restrained energy of the helmsman’s movements, the dreamy grace of a seated lady, the transparency of the air, the feeling of freshness of the breeze and the sliding movement of the boat creates an indescribable picture full of light joy and freshness. .

A special niche in the work of Manet is occupied by still lifes, characteristic of different periods of his work. So, in the early still life "Peonies" (1864-1865), blooming red and white-pink buds are depicted, as well as flowers that have already blossomed and begin to fade, dropping petals on the tablecloth covering the table. Later works are notable for their effortless sketchiness. In them, the painter tries to convey the radiance of flowers, shrouded in an atmosphere permeated with light. Such is the painting "Roses in a Crystal Glass" (1882-1883).

At the end of his life, Manet, apparently, was dissatisfied with what he had achieved and tried to return to writing large, complete plot compositions at a different level of skill. At this time, he begins to work on one of the most significant canvases - "The Bar at the Folies-Bergere" (1881-1882), in which he approached a new level, a new stage in the development of his art, interrupted by death (as you know, during Manet was seriously ill while working). In the center of the composition is the figure of a young female saleswoman, turned front to the viewer. A slightly tired, attractive blonde, dressed in a dark dress with a deep glare, stands against the backdrop of a huge mirror occupying the entire wall, which reflects the glow of flickering light and the vague, blurry outlines of the public sitting at the tables of the cafe. The woman is turned to face the hall, in which, as it were, the viewer himself is located. This peculiar technique gives the traditional picture, at first glance, some unsteadiness, suggesting a comparison of the real world and the reflected one. At the same time, the central axis of the picture turns out to be shifted to the right corner, in which, according to the typical for the 1870s. reception, the frame of the picture slightly blocks the figure of a man in a top hat, reflected in the mirror, talking to a young saleswoman.

Thus, in this work, the classical principle of symmetry and stability is combined with a dynamic shift to the side, as well as with fragmentation, when a certain moment (fragment) is snatched from a single stream of life.

It would be wrong to think that the plot of The Bar at the Folies Bergère is devoid of essential content and is a kind of monumentalization of the insignificant. The figure of a young, but already internally tired and indifferent to the surrounding masquerade of a woman, her wandering gaze turned to nowhere, alienation from the illusory brilliance of life behind her, bring a significant semantic shade to the work, striking the viewer with its unexpectedness.

The viewer admires the unique freshness of two roses standing on the bar in a crystal glass with sparkling edges; and then involuntarily there is a comparison of these luxurious flowers with a rose half-withered in the closeness of the hall, pinned to the neckline of the saleswoman's dress. Looking at the picture, you can see the unique contrast between the freshness of her half-open chest and the indifferent look wandering through the crowd. This work is considered to be a program in the artist's work, since it contains elements of all his favorite themes and genres: portrait, still life, various lighting effects, crowd movement.

In general, the legacy left by Manet is represented by two aspects, which are especially pronounced in his last work. Firstly, with his work, he completes and exhausts the development of the classical realistic traditions of French art of the 19th century, and secondly, he lays in art the first sprouts of those trends that will be picked up and developed by seekers of new realism in the 20th century.

The painter received full and official recognition in the last years of his life, namely in 1882, when he was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor (the main award of France). Manet died in 1883 in Paris.

Claude Monet

Claude Monet, French artist, one of the founders of Impressionism, was born in 1840 in Paris.

As the son of a modest grocer who moved from Paris to Rouen, young Monet drew funny caricatures at the beginning of his career, then studied with the Rouen landscape painter Eugene Boudin, one of the creators of the plein air realistic landscape. Boudin not only convinced the future painter of the need to work in the open air, but also managed to instill in him a love for nature, careful observation and truthful transmission of what he saw.

In 1859, Monet leaves for Paris with the goal of becoming a real artist. His parents dreamed that he would enter the School of Fine Arts, but the young man does not justify their hopes and plunges headlong into the bohemian life, acquires numerous acquaintances in the artistic environment. Completely deprived of the material support of his parents, and therefore without a livelihood, Monet was forced to join the army. However, even after returning from Algeria, where he had to carry out a difficult service, he continues to lead the same way of life. A little later, he met I. Ionkind, who fascinated him with work on natural studies. And then he visits the studio of Suisse, for some time he studies in the studio of the then-famous painter of the academic direction - M. Gleyre, and also becomes close to a group of young artists (J.F. Basil, C. Pissarro, E. Degas, P. Cezanne, O Renoir, A. Sisley and others), who, like Monet himself, were looking for new ways of development in art.

The greatest influence on the novice painter was not the school of M. Gleyre, but friendship with like-minded people, ardent critics of salon academism. It was thanks to this friendship, mutual support, the opportunity to exchange experience and share achievements that a new pictorial system was born, which later received the name "impressionism".

The basis of the reform was that the work took place in nature, under the open sky. At the same time, the artists painted in the open air not only sketches, but the whole picture. Directly in contact with nature, they became more and more convinced that the color of objects is constantly changing depending on the change in lighting, the state of the atmosphere, the proximity of other objects that cast color reflections, and many other factors. It was these changes that they sought to convey through their works.

In 1865, Monet decided to paint a large canvas "in the spirit of Manet, but in the open air." It was Luncheon on the Grass (1866), his first most significant work, depicting smartly dressed Parisians driving out of town and sitting in the shade of a tree around a tablecloth spread on the ground. The work is characterized by the traditional character of its closed and balanced composition. However, the artist's attention is directed not so much to the opportunity to show human characters or to create an expressive plot composition, but to fit human figures into the surrounding landscape and convey the atmosphere of ease and relaxation that prevails among them. To create this effect, the artist pays great attention to the transfer of sun glare breaking through the foliage, playing on the tablecloth and dress of the young lady sitting in the center. Monet accurately captures and conveys the play of color reflections on tablecloths and the translucency of a light women's dress. With these discoveries, the breaking of the old system of painting begins, which emphasizes dark shadows and a dense material manner of execution.

Since that time, Monet's approach to the world has become landscape. The human character, the relationship of people are of less interest to him. Events 1870-1871 forced Monet to emigrate to London, from where he travels to Holland. Upon his return, he paints several paintings that have become programmatic in his work. These include "Impression. Sunrise" (1872), "Lilacs in the Sun" (1873), "Boulevard des Capucines" (1873), "Field of Poppies at Argenteuil" (1873), etc.

In 1874, some of them were exhibited at the famous exhibition organized by the "Anonymous Society of Painters, Artists and Engravers", led by Monet himself. After the exhibition, Monet and a group of his like-minded people began to be called the Impressionists (from the French impression - impression). By this time, the artistic principles of Monet, characteristic of the first stage of his work, finally formed into a certain system.

In the plein-air landscape Lilacs in the Sun (1873), depicting two women sitting in the shade of large bushes of flowering lilacs, their figures are treated in the same manner and with the same intentness as the bushes themselves and the grass on which they sit. The figures of people are only part of the general landscape, while the feeling of the soft warmth of early summer, the freshness of young foliage, the haze of a sunny day are conveyed with extraordinary liveliness and direct persuasiveness, not characteristic of that time.

Another picture - "Boulevard des Capucines" - reflects all the main contradictions, advantages and disadvantages of the Impressionist method. Here, a moment snatched from the flow of life of a big city is very accurately conveyed: a feeling of a deaf monotonous noise of traffic, humid transparency of the air, the rays of the February sun sliding along the bare branches of trees, a film of grayish clouds covering the blue of the sky ... The picture is fleeting, but nevertheless less vigilant and noticing the look of the artist, and the artist is sensitive, responding to all the phenomena of life. The fact that the glance is really thrown by chance is emphasized by the thoughtful compositional
reception: the frame of the picture on the right, as it were, cuts off the figures of men standing on the balcony.

The canvases of this period make the viewer feel that he himself is the protagonist of this celebration of life, filled with sunlight and the incessant hubbub of an elegant crowd.

Having settled in Argenteuil, Monet writes with great interest to the Seine, bridges, light sailboats gliding on the water surface ...

The landscape captivates him so much that, succumbing to an irresistible attraction, he builds himself a small boat and gets to his native Rouen in it, and there, amazed by the picture he sees, splashes out his feelings in sketches, which depict the surroundings of the city and large sea waters entering the mouth of the river. ships ("Argenteuil", 1872; "Sailboat in Argenteuil", 1873-1874).

1877 is marked by the creation of a series of paintings depicting the Saint-Lazare railway station. They outlined a new stage in the work of Monet.

Since that time, sketches, distinguished by their completeness, have given way to works in which the main thing is an analytical approach to the depicted (“Gare Saint-Lazare”, 1877). The change in the painting style is associated with changes in the artist's personal life: his wife Camilla falls seriously ill, poverty falls upon the family, caused by the birth of a second child.

After the death of his wife, Alice Goshede took over the care of the children, whose family rented the same house in Vetheuil as Monet. This woman later became his second wife. After some time, Monet's financial situation improved so much that he was able to buy his own house in Giverny, where he worked for the rest of the time.

The painter subtly feels new trends, which allows him to anticipate a lot with amazing insight.
from what will be achieved by artists of the late XIX - early XX centuries. It changes the attitude to color and plots
paintings. Now his attention is focused on the expressiveness of the color scheme of the brushstroke in isolation from its subject correlation, enhancing the decorative effect. Ultimately, he creates panel paintings. Simple plots 1860-1870 give way to complex, saturated with various associative motifs: epic images of rocks, elegiac ranks of poplars (“Rocks in Belle-Ile”, 1866; “Poplars”, 1891).

This period is marked by numerous serial works: the compositions of "Hacks" ("Haystack in the snow. Gloomy day", 1891; "Hacks. End of the day. Autumn", 1891), images of Rouen Cathedral ("Rouen Cathedral at noon", 1894, etc. .), views of London (“Fog in London”, 1903, etc.). Still working in an impressionistic manner and using a variety of tonality of his palette, the master aims to convey with the greatest accuracy and reliability how the illumination of the same objects can change in different weather during the day.

If you look more closely at a series of paintings about the Rouen Cathedral, it becomes clear that the cathedral here is not the embodiment of the complex world of thoughts, feelings and ideals of the people of medieval France, and not even a monument of art and architecture, but a kind of background, starting from which the author conveys the state of life light and atmosphere. The viewer feels the freshness of the morning breeze, the midday heat, the soft shadows of the impending evening, which are the true heroes of this series.

However, in addition to this, such paintings are unusual decorative compositions, which, thanks to involuntarily arising associative connections, give the viewer the impression of the dynamics of time and space.

Having moved with his family to Giverny, Monet spent a lot of time in the garden, doing his painting organization. This occupation influenced the views of the artist so much that instead of the ordinary world inhabited by people, he began to depict on his canvases the mysterious decorative world of water and plants (“Irises at Giverny”, 1923; “Weeping Willows”, 1923). Hence the views of ponds with water lilies floating in them, shown in the most famous series of his later panels (“White Water Lilies. Harmony of Blue”, 1918-1921).

Giverny became the last refuge of the artist, where he died in 1926.

It should be noted that the manner of writing the Impressionists was very different from the manner of the Academicians. Impressionists, in particular Monet and his like-minded people, were interested in the expressiveness of the color scheme of the brushstroke in isolation from its subject correlation. That is, they wrote in separate strokes, using only pure paints that were not mixed on the palette, while the desired tone was already formed in the perception of the viewer. So, for the foliage of trees and grass, along with green, blue and yellow were used, giving the right shade of green at a distance. This method gave the works of the Impressionist masters a special purity and freshness, inherent only to them. Separately laid strokes created the impression of a relief and, as it were, vibrating surface.

Pierre Auguste Renoir

Pierre Auguste Renoir, French painter, graphic artist and sculptor, one of the leaders of the Impressionist group, was born on February 25, 1841 in Limoges, in a poor family of a provincial tailor, who moved to Paris in 1845. The talent of the young Renoir was noticed by his parents quite early, and in 1854 they assigned him to a porcelain painting workshop. While visiting the workshop, Renoir simultaneously studied at the school of drawing and applied art, and in 1862, having saved money (earning money by painting coats of arms, curtains and fans), the young artist entered the School of Fine Arts. A little later, he began to visit the workshop of C. Gleyre, where he became close friends with A. Sisley, F. Basil and C. Monet. He often visited the Louvre, studying the works of such masters as A. Watteau, F. Boucher, O. Fragonard.

Communication with a group of impressionists leads Renoir to develop his own style of vision. So, for example, unlike them, throughout his entire work he turned to the image of a person as the main motive of his paintings. In addition, his work, although it was plein air, never dissolved
plastic weight of the material world in the shimmering medium of light.

The use of chiaroscuro by the painter, giving the image an almost sculptural form, makes his early works look like the works of some realist artists, in particular G. Courbet. However, a lighter and lighter color scheme, inherent only to Renoir, distinguishes this master from his predecessors ("Mother Anthony's Tavern", 1866). An attempt to convey the natural plasticity of the movement of human figures in the open air is noticeable in many of the artist's works. In "Portrait of Alfred Sisley with his wife" (1868), Renoir tries to show the feeling that connects the couple walking arm in arm: Sisley paused for a moment and gently leaned towards his wife. In this picture, with a composition reminiscent of a photographic frame, the motif of movement is still accidental and practically unconscious. However, compared with the "Tavern", the figures in the "Portrait of Alfred Sisley with his wife" seem more at ease and alive. Another important point is significant: the spouses are depicted in nature (in the garden), but Renoir still has no experience in depicting human figures in the open air.

"Portrait of Alfred Sisley with his wife" is the artist's first step on the path to new art. The next stage in the artist’s work was the painting Bathing in the Seine (c. 1869), where the figures of people walking along the shore, bathers, as well as boats and clumps of trees are brought together by the light-air atmosphere of a beautiful summer day. The painter is already freely using colored shadows and light-color reflections. His smear becomes alive and energetic.

Like C. Monet, Renoir is fond of the problem of including the human figure in the world of the environment. The artist solves this problem in the painting "Swing" (1876), but in a slightly different way than C. Monet, in which the figures of people seem to dissolve in the landscape. Renoir introduces several key figures into his composition. The picturesque manner in which this canvas is made very naturally conveys the atmosphere of a hot summer day softened by the shadow. The picture is permeated with a feeling of happiness and joy.

In the mid 1870s. Renoir paints such works as the sun-drenched landscape "Path in the Meadows" (1875), filled with light lively movement and the elusive play of bright light reflections "Moulin de la Galette" (1876), as well as "Umbrellas" (1883), "Lodge" (1874) and The End of Breakfast (1879). These beautiful canvases were created despite the fact that the artist had to work in a difficult environment, since after the scandalous exhibition of the Impressionists (1874), Renoir's work (as well as the work of his like-minded people) was subject to sharp attacks from the so-called art connoisseurs. However, during this difficult time, Renoir felt the support of two people close to him: brother Edmond (publisher of the magazine La Vie Moderne) and Georges Charpentier (owner of the weekly). They helped the artist get a small amount of money and rent a workshop.

It should be noted that in terms of composition, the landscape “Path in the Meadows” is very close to “Poppies” (1873) by C. Monet, however, the picturesque texture of Renoir’s canvases is more dense and material. Another difference regarding the compositional solution is the sky. In Renoir, for whom it was the materiality of the natural world that was important, the sky occupies only a small part of the picture, while in Monet, who depicted the sky with gray-silver or snow-white clouds running across it, it rises above a slope dotted with flowering poppies, enhancing the feeling sun-drenched summer day.

In the compositions "Moulin de la Galette" (with it a real success came to the artist), "Umbrellas", "Lodge" and "The End of Breakfast" are clearly shown (as in Manet and Degas) interest in a seemingly accidentally peeped life situation; also characteristic is the appeal to the method of cutting the frame of the compositional space, which is also characteristic of E. Degas and partly E. Manet. But, unlike the works of the latter, Renoir's paintings are distinguished by great calmness and contemplation.

The canvas “The Lodge”, in which, as if looking through binoculars rows of chairs, the author inadvertently comes across a box in which a beauty with an indifferent look is located. Her companion, on the contrary, looks at the audience with great interest. Part of his figure is cut off by the picture frame.

The work "The End of Breakfast" presents a rudimentary episode: two ladies dressed in white and black, as well as their gentleman, complete breakfast in a shady corner of the garden. The table is already set for coffee, which is served in cups made of fine pale blue porcelain. The women are waiting for the continuation of the story, which the man interrupted in order to light a cigarette. This picture is not dramatic or deep psychologism, it attracts the viewer's attention with a subtle transfer of the smallest shades of mood.

A similar feeling of calm cheerfulness permeates the "Breakfast of the Rowers" (1881), full of light and lively movement. Enthusiasm and charm emanates from the figure of a pretty young lady sitting with a dog in her arms. The artist depicted his future wife in the picture. The canvas “Nude” (1876) is filled with the same joyful mood, only in a slightly different refraction. The freshness and warmth of the body of a young woman contrasts with the bluish-cold fabric of the sheets and linen, which form a kind of background.

A characteristic feature of Renoir's work is that a person is deprived of the complex psychological and moral fullness that is characteristic of the painting of almost all realist artists. This feature is inherent not only in works like "Nude" (where the nature of the plot motif allows for the absence of such qualities), but also in Renoir's portraits. However, this does not deprive his canvas of charm, which lies in the cheerfulness of the characters.

To the greatest extent, these qualities are felt in the famous portrait of Renoir "Girl with a Fan" (c. 1881). The canvas is the link that connects the early work of Renoir with the later, characterized by a colder and more refined color scheme. During this period, the artist, to a greater extent than before, has an interest in clear lines, in a clear drawing, as well as in the locality of color. The artist assigns a large role to rhythmic repetitions (the semicircle of a fan - the semicircular back of a red chair - sloping girlish shoulders).

However, all these trends in Renoir's painting manifested themselves most fully in the second half of the 1880s, when disappointment set in in his work and impressionism in general. Having destroyed some of his works, which the artist considered “dried”, he begins to study the work of N. Poussin, turns to the drawing of J. O. D. Ingres. As a result, his palette acquires a special luminosity. The so-called. "Pearl period", known to us from such works as "Girls at the Piano" (1892), "The Sleeping Bather" (1897), as well as portraits of sons - Pierre, Jean and Claude - "Gabriel and Jean" (1895), " Coco" (1901).

In addition, from 1884 to 1887, Renoir is working on a series of variants of the large painting "Bathers". In them, he manages to achieve a clear compositional completeness. However, all attempts to revive and rethink the traditions of the great predecessors, while turning to the plot far from the big problems of our time, ended in failure. "Bathers" only alienated the artist from his earlier direct and fresh perception of life. All this largely explains the fact that since the 1890s. Renoir's work becomes weaker: orange-red tones begin to predominate in the color of his works, and the background, devoid of airy depth, becomes decorative and flat.

Since 1903, Renoir settled in his own house in Cagnes-sur-Mer, where he continued to work on landscapes, compositions with human figures and still lifes, in which for the most part the reddish tones already mentioned above predominate. Being seriously ill, the artist can no longer hold the brushes on his own, and they are tied to his hands. However, after some time, painting has to be completely abandoned. Then the master turns to sculpture. Together with Guino's assistant, he creates several amazing sculptures, distinguished by the beauty and harmony of silhouettes, joy and life-affirming power (Venus, 1913; The Great Laundress, 1917; Motherhood, 1916). Renoir died in 1919 on his estate in the Alpes-Maritimes.

Edgar Degas

Edgar Hilaire Germain Degas, French painter, graphic artist and sculptor, the largest representative of impressionism, was born in 1834 in Paris in the family of a wealthy banker. Being well-to-do, he received an excellent education at the prestigious Lyceum named after Louis the Great (1845-1852). For some time he was a student at the Faculty of Law at the University of Paris (1853), but, feeling a craving for art, he left the university and began to attend the studio of the artist L. Lamotte (a student and follower of Ingres) and at the same time (since 1855) the School
fine arts. However, in 1856, unexpectedly for everyone, Degas left Paris and went to Italy for two years, where he studied with great interest and, like many painters, copied the works of the great masters of the Renaissance. His greatest attention is paid to the works of A. Mantegna and P. Veronese, whose inspired and colorful painting the young artist highly appreciated.

Degas's early works (mainly portraits) are characterized by a clear and precise drawing and subtle observation, combined with an exquisitely restrained manner of writing (sketches by his brother, 1856-1857; drawing of the head of Baroness Belleli, 1859) or with amazing truthfulness of execution (portrait of an Italian beggars, 1857).

Returning to his homeland, Degas turned to the historical theme, but gave it an interpretation uncharacteristic for that time. Thus, in the composition “Spartan Girls Challenge Young Men to a Competition” (1860), the master, ignoring the conditional idealization of the ancient plot, seeks to embody it as it could be in reality. Antiquity here, as in his other canvases on a historical theme, is as if passed through the prism of modernity: the images of girls and young men of Ancient Sparta with angular forms, thin bodies and sharp movements, depicted against the background of an everyday prosaic landscape, are far from classical ideas and resemble in more of the ordinary teenagers of the Parisian suburbs than the idealized Spartans.

During the 1860s, there was a gradual formation of the creative method of the novice painter. In this decade, along with less significant historical canvases (“Semiramide Watching the Construction of Babylon”, 1861), the artist created several portrait works in which observation and realistic skills were honed. In this regard, the most indicative is the painting “Head of a young woman”, created by
in 1867

In 1861, Degas met E. Manet and soon became a regular at the Gerbois cafe, where young innovators of that time gather: C. Monet, O. Renoir, A. Sisley and others. But if they are primarily interested in landscape and work in the open air , then Degas focuses more on the theme of the city, Parisian types. He is attracted to everything that is in motion; static leaves him indifferent.

Degas was a very attentive observer, subtly capturing everything that is characteristically expressive in the endless change of life phenomena. Thus, conveying the crazy rhythm of the big city, he comes to the creation of one of the variants of the everyday genre dedicated to the capitalist city.

In the work of this period, portraits stand out, among which there are many that are classified as the pearls of world painting. Among them are a portrait of the Belleli family (c. 1860-1862), a portrait of a woman (1867), a portrait of the artist's father listening to the guitarist Pagan (c. 1872).

Some paintings from the period of the 1870s are characterized by a photographic impassivity in the depiction of characters. An example is a canvas called "Dancing Lesson" (c. 1874), made in cold bluish tones. With amazing accuracy, the author captures the movements of ballerinas taking lessons from an old dance master. However, there are paintings of a different nature, such as, for example, a portrait of Viscount Lepic with his daughters on the Place de la Concorde, dating back to 1873. Here, the sober prosaic fixation is overcome due to the pronounced dynamics of the composition and the extraordinary sharpness of the transmission of Lepic's character; in a word, this happens due to the artistically sharp and sharp disclosure of the characteristically expressive beginning of life.

It should be noted that the works of this period reflect the artist's view of the event depicted by him. His paintings destroy the usual academic canons. Degas' painting The Musicians of the Orchestra (1872) is built on the sharp contrast that is created by comparing the heads of the musicians (painted in close-up) and the small figure of a dancer bowing to the audience. Interest in expressive movement and its exact copying on the canvas is also observed in numerous sketch figurines of dancers (we must not forget that Degas was also a sculptor), created by the master in order to capture the essence of movement, its logic as accurately as possible.

The artist was interested in the professional specificity of movements, postures and gestures, devoid of any kind of poeticization. This is especially noticeable in works devoted to horse racing ("Young Jockey", 1866-1868; "Horse Racing in the Province. Crew at the Races", ca. 1872; "Jockeys in front of the stands", ca. 1879, etc.). In The Ride of Racehorses (1870s), the analysis of the professional side of the matter is given with almost reporter's accuracy. If we compare this canvas with T. Géricault's painting "The Races at Epsom", it immediately becomes clear that, due to its obvious analyticity, Degas's work loses much to T. Géricault's emotional composition. The same qualities are inherent in Degas' pastel "Ballerina on Stage" (1876-1878), which does not belong to the number of his masterpieces.

However, despite such one-sidedness, and perhaps even thanks to it, Degas's art is distinguished by persuasiveness and content. In his programmatic works, he very accurately and with great skill reveals the depth and complexity of the internal state of the depicted person, as well as the atmosphere of alienation and loneliness in which contemporary society lives, including the author himself.

For the first time, these moods were recorded in a small canvas “Dancer in front of a photographer” (1870s), on which the artist painted a lonely figure of a dancer, frozen in a gloomy and gloomy atmosphere in a learned pose in front of a bulky photographic apparatus. In the future, a feeling of bitterness and loneliness penetrates into such canvases as "Absinthe" (1876), "Singer from the Cafe" (1878), "Ironers" (1884) and many others. Degas showed two figures of a man and a woman, lonely and indifferent to each other and to the whole world. The dim greenish flicker of a glass filled with absinthe emphasizes the sadness and hopelessness seen in the woman's eyes and in her posture. A pale bearded man with a puffy face is gloomy and thoughtful.

Creativity Degas inherent genuine interest in the characters of people, to the peculiar features of their behavior, as well as a well-built dynamic composition that replaced the traditional one. Its main principle is to find the most expressive angles in reality itself. This distinguishes the work of Degas from the art of other impressionists (in particular, C. Monet, A. Sisley and, in part, O. Renoir) with their contemplative approach to the world around them. The artist already used this principle in his early work The Cotton Receiving Office in New Orleans (1873), which aroused E. Goncourt's admiration for its sincerity and realism. Such are his later works "Miss Lala in the Fernando Circus" (1879) and "Dancers in the Foyer" (1879), where within the same motive a subtle analysis of the change of diverse movements is given.

Sometimes this technique is used by some researchers in order to indicate the proximity of Degas with A. Watteau. Although both artists are indeed similar in some points (A. Watteau also focuses on the various shades of the same movement), it is enough to compare the drawing by A. Watteau with the image of the movements of the violinist from the aforementioned Degas composition, as the opposite of their artistic techniques is immediately felt.

If A. Watteau tries to convey the elusive transitions of one movement into another, so to speak, semitones, then for Degas, on the contrary, an energetic and contrasting change in movement motives is characteristic. He strives more for their comparison and sharp collision, often making the figure angular. In this way, the artist tries to capture the dynamics of the development of contemporary life.

In the late 1880s - early 1890s. in the work of Degas, there is a predominance of decorative motifs, which is probably due to some dulling of the vigilance of his artistic perception. If in the canvases of the early 1880s devoted to the nude (“Woman Leaving the Bathroom”, 1883), there is a greater interest in the vivid expressiveness of movement, then by the end of the decade the artist’s interest shifted noticeably towards the depiction of female beauty. This is especially noticeable in the painting "Bathing" (1886), where the painter with great skill conveys the charm of the flexible and graceful body of a young woman leaning over her pelvis.

Artists have painted similar paintings before, but Degas takes a slightly different path. If the heroines of other masters always felt the presence of the viewer, then here the painter depicts a woman, as if completely unconcerned about how she looks from the outside. And although such situations look beautiful and quite natural, the images in such works often approach the grotesque. After all, any poses and gestures, even the most intimate, are quite appropriate here, they are fully justified by a functional necessity: when washing, reach out to the right place, unfasten the clasp on the back, slip, grab onto something.

In the last years of his life, Degas was more involved in sculpture than painting. This is partly due to eye disease and visual impairment. He creates the same images that are present in his paintings: he sculpts figurines of ballerinas, dancers, horses. At the same time, the artist tries to convey the dynamics of movements as accurately as possible. Degas does not leave painting, which, although it fades into the background, does not completely disappear from his work.

Due to the formally expressive, rhythmic construction of compositions, the desire for a decorative-planar interpretation of the images of Degas's paintings, made in the late 1880s and during the 1890s. turn out to be devoid of realistic credibility and become like decorative panels.

Degas spent the rest of his life in his native Paris, where he died in 1917.

Camille Pissarro

Camille Pissarro, French painter and graphic artist, was born in 1830 on about. St. Thomas (Antilles) in the family of a merchant. He was educated in Paris, where he studied from 1842 to 1847. After completing his studies, Pissarro returned to St. Thomas and began to help his father in the store. However, this was not at all what the young man dreamed of. His interest lay far beyond the counter. Painting was most important to him, but his father did not support his son's interest and was opposed to him leaving the family business. The complete misunderstanding and unwillingness of the family to meet halfway led to the fact that the completely desperate young man fled to Venezuela (1853). This act still influenced the adamant parent, and he allowed his son to go to Paris to study painting.

In Paris, Pissarro entered the studio of Suisse, where he studied for six years (from 1855 to 1861). At the World Exhibition of Painting in 1855, the future artist discovered J. O. D. Ingres, G. Courbet, but the works of C. Corot made the greatest impression on him. On the advice of the latter, continuing to visit the studio of Suisse, the young painter entered the School of Fine Arts to A. Melby. At this time, he met C. Monet, with whom he painted landscapes of the outskirts of Paris.

In 1859, Pissarro exhibited his paintings for the first time at the Salon. His early works were written under the influence of C. Corot and G. Courbet, but gradually Pissarro comes to develop his own style. A novice painter devotes a lot of time to working in the open air. He, like other impressionists, is interested in the life of nature in motion. Pissarro pays great attention to color, which can convey not only the form, but also the material essence of the object. To reveal the unique charm and beauty of nature, he uses light strokes of pure colors, which, interacting with each other, create a vibrating tonal range. Drawn in cross-shaped, parallel and diagonal lines, they give the whole image an amazing sense of depth and rhythmic sound (“The Seine at Marly”, 1871).

Painting does not bring Pissarro a lot of money, and he barely makes ends meet. In moments of despair, the artist makes attempts to break with art forever, but soon returns to creativity again.

During the Franco-Prussian War, Pissarro lives in London. Together with C. Monet, he paints London landscapes from nature. The artist's house in Louveciennes at that time was plundered by the Prussian invaders. Most of the paintings that remained in the house were destroyed. The soldiers spread the canvases in the yard under their feet during the rain.

Returning to Paris, Pissarro is still experiencing financial difficulties. Republic that came to replace
empire, changed almost nothing in France. The bourgeoisie, impoverished after the events connected with the Commune, cannot buy paintings. At this time, Pissarro takes under his patronage the young artist P. Cezanne. Together they work in Pontoise, where Pissarro creates canvases depicting the surroundings of Pontoise, where the artist lived until 1884 (“Oise in Pontoise”, 1873); quiet villages, roads stretching into the distance (“Road from Gisors to Pontoise under the snow”, 1873; “Red Roofs”, 1877; “Landscape in Pontoise”, 1877).

Pissarro took an active part in all eight exhibitions of the Impressionists, organized from 1874 to 1886. Possessing a pedagogical talent, the painter could find a common language with almost all novice artists and helped them with advice. Contemporaries said about him that "he can even teach how to draw stones." The master's talent was so great that he could distinguish even the subtlest shades of colors where others saw only gray, brownish and green.

A special place in the work of Pissarro is occupied by canvases dedicated to the city, shown as a living organism, constantly changing depending on the light and season. The artist had an amazing ability to see a lot and catch what others did not notice. So, for example, looking out of the same window, he wrote 30 works depicting Montmartre ("Montmartre Boulevard in Paris", 1897). The master passionately loved Paris, so he dedicated most of the paintings to him. The artist managed to convey in his works the unique magic that made Paris one of the greatest cities in the world. For work, the painter rented rooms on Saint-Lazare Street, Grands Boulevards, etc. He transferred everything he saw to his canvases (“Italian Boulevard in the morning, illuminated by the sun”, 1897; “Place of the French Theater in Paris, spring”, 1898; “ Opera passage in Paris).

Among his urban landscapes are works that depict other cities. So, in the 1890s. the master lived for a long time in Dieppe, then in Rouen. In paintings dedicated to various parts of France, he revealed the beauty of ancient squares, the poetry of alleys and ancient buildings, from which the spirit of bygone eras emanates (“Great Bridge in Rouen”, 1896; “Bualdier Bridge in Rouen at Sunset”, 1896; “ View of Rouen", 1898; "The Church of Saint-Jacques in Dieppe", 1901).

Although Pissarro's landscapes are not brightly colorful, their painterly texture is unusually rich in various shades: for example, the gray tone of a cobblestone pavement is formed from strokes of pure pink, blue, blue, golden ocher, English red, etc. As a result, gray seems to be mother-of-pearl, shimmers and glows, making the paintings look like gems.

Pissarro created not only landscapes. In his work there are also genre paintings, which embodied interest in man.

Among the most significant, it is worth noting "Coffee with Milk" (1881), "Girl with a Branch" (1881), "Woman with a Child at the Well" (1882), "Market: a Meat Trader" (1883). Working on these works, the painter sought to streamline the stroke and introduce elements of monumentality into the compositions.

In the mid-1880s, already a mature artist, Pissarro, under the influence of Seurat and Signac, became interested in divisionism and began to paint with small colored dots. In this manner, such a work of his as “Lacroix Island, Rouen. Fog" (1888). However, the hobby did not last long, and soon (1890) the master returned to his former style.

In addition to painting, Pissarro worked in watercolor, created etchings, lithographs and drawings.
The artist died in Paris in 1903.