Walking among the populists. The activity of the revolutionary (rebellious) trend in populism

Walking among the people- the movement of student youth and revolutionary populists with the aim of enlightening the people and revolutionary agitation directly among the peasant masses. The first, student and educational stage began in 1861, and the movement reached its greatest extent in the form of organized revolutionary agitation in 1874. "Walking to the people" influenced the self-organization of the revolutionary movement, but did not have a significant impact on the masses. This phrase entered the Russian language and is used ironically today.

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First stage

In the middle of the 19th century, interest in higher education grew in Russia, especially in the natural sciences. But in the fall of 1861, the government raised tuition fees and banned student mutual funds. In response to this, student unrest occurred at the universities, after which many students were expelled from educational institutions. A significant part of the active youth turned out to be thrown out of life - the expelled students could neither get a job in the civil service due to "unreliability", nor continue their studies. Herzen wrote in the newspaper The Bell in 1861:

In subsequent years, the number of "exiles of science" grew, and going to the people became a mass phenomenon. During this period, former and failed students became rural teachers and paramedics.

The propaganda activities of the revolutionary Zaichnevsky, the author of the proclamation “Young Russia”, who went to the people as early as 1861, gained great fame. However, in general, during this period, the movement was of the social and educational nature of "serving the people", and Zaichnevsky's radical Jacobin agitation was rather an exception.

Second phase

In the early 1870s, the populists set the task of drawing the people into the revolutionary struggle. The ideological leaders of the organized revolutionary movement among the people were the populist N. V. Tchaikovsky, the anarchist P. A. Kropotkin, the “moderate” revolutionary theorist P. L. Lavrov and the radical anarchist M. A. Bakunin, who wrote:

A theoretical view of this problem was developed by the illegal magazine Vperyod! ”, published since 1873 under the editorship of Lavrov. However, the revolutionary youth strove for immediate action, there was a radicalization of views in the spirit of the ideas of the anarchist Bakunin. Kropotkin developed a theory according to which, in order to carry out a revolution, the advanced intelligentsia must live a people's life and create circles of active peasants in the villages, with their subsequent unification into a peasant movement. Kropotkin's teaching combined the ideas of Lavrov on the enlightenment of the masses and the anarchist ideas of Bakunin, who denied the political struggle within the institutions of the state, the state itself and called for a nationwide revolt.

In the early 1970s there were many cases of individual revolutionaries going among the people. For example, Kravchinsky agitated the peasants of the Tula and Tver provinces back in the autumn of 1873 with the help of the Gospel, from which he drew socialist conclusions. Propaganda in overcrowded huts continued well into the night and was accompanied by the singing of revolutionary hymns. But by 1874 the Narodniks had developed a general view of the necessity of mass going to the people. The mass action began in the spring of 1874, was associated with a public upsurge, remained spontaneous in many respects and drew in various categories of people. A significant part of the youth was inspired by Bakunin's idea to immediately raise a revolt, but due to the diversity of the composition of the participants, the propaganda was also diverse, from calls to immediately start an uprising to the modest tasks of educating the people. The movement covered about forty provinces, mainly in the Volga region and in southern Russia. It was decided to deploy propaganda in these regions in connection with the famine of 1873-1874 in the Middle Volga region, the populists also believed that the traditions of Razin and Pugachev were alive here.

In practice, going to the people looked like this: young people, as a rule, student youth, one by one or in small groups under the guise of trade intermediaries, craftsmen, etc., moved from village to village, speaking at gatherings, talking with peasants, trying to instill distrust in the authorities , urged not to pay taxes, disobey the administration, explained the injustice of the distribution of land after the reform. Proclamations were distributed among the literate peasants. Refuting the popular opinion that the royal power is from God, the populists initially propagandized the Earth and will” and decided to change tactics and announced a “second trip to the people”. It was decided to move from the unsuccessful practice of "flying detachments" to the organization of permanent settlements of agitators. The revolutionaries opened workshops in the villages, got jobs as teachers or doctors, and tried to create revolutionary cells. However, the experience of three years of agitation showed that the peasantry did not perceive either radical revolutionary and socialist appeals, or an explanation of the current needs of the people, as they were understood by the populists. Attempts to rouse the people to fight did not bring any serious results, and the government paid attention to the revolutionary propaganda of the populists and launched repressions. Many propagandists were handed over to the authorities by the peasants themselves. More than 4 thousand people were arrested. Of these, 770 propagandists were involved in the inquiry, and 193 people were brought to trial in 1877. However, only 99 defendants were sentenced to hard labor, prison and exile, the rest were either given pre-trial detention or were fully acquitted.

The futility of revolutionary propaganda among the people, mass arrests, the trial of the 193rd and the trial of the fifty in 1877-1788 put an end to the movement.

Populism is an ideological trend of a radical nature that opposed serfdom, for the overthrow of the autocracy or for the global reform of the Russian Empire. As a result of the actions of populism, Alexander 2 was killed, after which the organization actually collapsed. Neopopulism was restored in the late 1890s in the form of the activities of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party.

Main dates:

• 1874-1875 - "the movement of populism to the people."
• 1876 ​​- creation of "Land and Freedom".
• 1879 - "Land and Freedom" splits into "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Repartition".
• March 1, 1881 - the assassination of Alexander 2.

Prominent historical figures of populism:

1. Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich is one of the key ideologists of populism in Russia.
2. Lavrov Petr Lavrovich - scientist. He also acted as an ideologue of populism.
3. Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich - writer and public figure. Ideologist of populism and informer of its main ideas.
4. Zhelyabov Andrei Ivanovich - was a member of the Narodnaya Volya administration, one of the organizers of the assassination attempt on Alexander 2.
5. Nechaev Sergey Gennadievich - the author of the Catechism of a Revolutionary, an active revolutionary.
6. Tkachev Petr Nikolaevich - an active revolutionary, one of the ideologists of the movement.

The ideology of revolutionary populism

Revolutionary populism in Russia originated in the 60s of the 19th century. Initially, it was called not "populism", but "public socialism". The author of this theory was A.I. Herzen N.G. Chernyshevsky.

Russia has a unique chance to move to socialism, bypassing capitalism. The main element of the transition should be the peasant community with its elements of collective land use. In this sense, Russia should become an example for the rest of the world.

Herzen A.I.

Why is Narodism called revolutionary? Because it called for the overthrow of the autocracy by any means, including the way of terror. Today, some historians say that this was the innovation of the populists, but this is not so. The same Herzen in his idea of ​​"public socialism" said that terror and revolution is one of the methods to achieve the goal (albeit an extreme method).

The ideological currents of populism in the 70s

In the 70s, populism entered a new stage, when the organization was actually divided into 3 different ideological currents. These currents had a common goal - the overthrow of the autocracy, but the methods of achieving this goal differed.

The ideological currents of populism:

• Propaganda. Ideologist - P.L. Lavrov. The main idea is that thinking people should lead historical processes. Therefore, populism must go to the people and enlighten them.
• Rebellious. Ideologist - M.A. Bakunin. The main idea was that propagandistic ideas were supported. The difference is that Bakunin spoke not simply of enlightening the people, but of calling them to take up arms against the oppressors.
• Conspiratorial. Ideologist - P.N. Tkachev. The main idea is that the monarchy in Russia is weak. Therefore, there is no need to work with the people, but it is necessary to create a secret organization that will carry out a coup and seize power.

All directions developed in parallel.

Entry into the People is a mass movement that began in 1874, in which thousands of young people of Russia took part. In fact, they implemented the ideology of the populism of Lavrov and Bakunin, conducting propaganda with the villagers. They moved from one village to another, handed out propaganda materials to people, talked with people, calling them to active actions, explaining that it was impossible to live like this any longer. For greater persuasiveness, entry into the people involved the use of peasant clothing and conversation in a language understandable to the peasants. But this ideology was met with suspicion by the peasants. They were wary of strangers who made "terrible speeches", and also thought in a completely different way from representatives of populism. Here is an example of one of the documented conversations:

- Who owns the land? Is she God's? - says Morozov, one of the active participants in joining the people.

- “God she is where no one lives. And where people live, there is human land,” was the answer of the peasants.

Obviously, populism had difficulty imagining the way of thinking of ordinary people, which means that their propaganda was extremely ineffective. Largely because of this, by the autumn of 1874, "entry into the people" began to fade away. By the same time, the repressions of the Russian government against those who "walked" began.

In 1876, the organization "Land and Freedom" was created. It was a secret organization that pursued one goal - the establishment of the Republic. Peasants' war was chosen as the achievement of this goal. Therefore, starting from 1876, the main efforts of Narodism were directed towards the preparation of this war. The following areas were chosen as training:

• Propaganda. Again the members of "Land and Freedom" appealed to the people. They got jobs as teachers, doctors, paramedics, petty officials. In these positions, they agitated the people for war, following the example of Razin and Pugachev. But once again, the propaganda of populism among the peasants did not give any effect. The peasants did not trust these people.
• individual terror. In fact, we are talking about disorganization work, in which terror was waged against prominent and capable statesmen. By the spring of 1879, as a result of terror, the head of the gendarmes, N.V. Mezentsev and Kharkov Governor D.N. Kropotkin. In addition, an unsuccessful attempt was made on Alexander 2.

By the summer of 1879, "Land and Freedom" split into 2 organizations: "Black Repartition" and "Narodnaya Volya". This was preceded by a congress of populists in St. Petersburg, Voronezh and Lipetsk.

Black redistribution

"Black redistribution" was headed by G.V. Plekhanov. He called for the abandonment of terror and a return to propaganda. The idea was that the peasants were simply not yet ready for the information that populism brought down on them, but soon the peasants would begin to understand everything and "take up the pitchfork" themselves.

People's Will

"Narodnaya Volya" was controlled by A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Petrovskaya. They also called for the active use of terror as a method of political struggle. Their goal was clear - the Russian tsar, whom they began to hunt from 1879 to 1881 (8 assassination attempts). For example, this led to the assassination attempt on Alexander 2 in Ukraine. The king survived, but 60 people died.

The end of the activities of populism and brief results

As a result of attempts on the emperor, unrest began among the people. Alexander 2 in this situation created a special commission, headed by M.T. Loris-Melikov. This man intensified the fight against populism and its terror, and also proposed a draft law, when certain elements of local government could be transferred under the control of "electors". In fact, this was what the peasants demanded, which means that this step significantly strengthened the monarchy. This draft law was to be signed by Alexander II on March 4, 1881. But on March 1, the populists committed another terrorist act, killing the emperor.

Alexander 3 came to power. "Narodnaya Volya" was closed, the entire leadership was arrested and shot by a court verdict. The terror unleashed by the Narodnaya Volya was not perceived by the population as an element of the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. In fact, we are talking about the meanness of this organization, which set high and correct goals, but chose the meanest and meanest opportunities to achieve them.

In the spring of 1874, the Bakuninists and Lavrists, united by calls to "go and rebel the people," made a mass attempt to "go to the people." Deprived of organizational unity, spontaneous in nature, it became a manifestation of the sacrificial impulse of youth. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky recalled: “This movement can hardly be called political. It was more like a crusade, characterized by the quite striking and all-consuming character of religious movements. The youth of the university centers left the cities, went to the Don, to the Volga region, where, according to their calculations, the traditions of Razin and Pugachev were alive. Propaganda covered about 40 provinces.
Young people moved from village to village, calling on the peasants to disobey the authorities, preaching the ideas of socialism. Direct calls for rebellion were most often perceived with hostility by the peasants. By autumn, the movement was crushed, the authorities arrested more than a thousand people. "Walking to the people" revealed the impossibility of implementing Bakunin's rebellious ideas in practice, which resulted in attempts to conduct long-term sedentary propaganda, when the revolutionaries, under the guise of teachers, paramedics, clerks, settled in the countryside.
The authorities staged a “trial of the 193s” over the participants in the “going to the people”, which contributed to the popularization of revolutionary socialist ideas. Another trial, the “Trial of the 50,” by which the members of the “Muscovites” circle were judged, gave the same result.
Secret society "Earth and freedom". By 1876, scattered underground groups united in an organization called "Land and Freedom". It was the largest secret society of revolutionary populists. On St. Nicholas Day, December 6, members of the organization, after a prayer service, which was served in the Kazan Cathedral of St. Petersburg for the health of N. G. Chernyshevsky, staged a demonstration on the square, where they raised a red banner with the inscription "Land and Freedom".
The program requirements of the landowners consisted in the transfer of all land to the communities, in the division of the Russian Empire into parts, "according to local desires", in the development of communal self-government. They hoped to achieve this "only through a violent coup," which they were preparing, inciting the people to riots and strikes and carrying out the "disorganization of power." Their ultimate ideal was anarchy and collectivism. They paid special attention to the development of statutory requirements, which included centralism, conspiracy, mutual comradely control, subordination of the minority to the majority. The soul of the organization was A. D. Mikhailov, who stated: “If we do not have a unity of views on our mutual relations, it will be unbearable and harmful. I will be the first to try to destroy such a shaky, pathetic and powerless alliance.
"Land and Freedom" worked in the countryside, creating settlements of its followers, but the peasants were deaf to the propaganda of the revolutionaries. An attempt by Ya. V. Stefanovich and L. G. Deutsch in 1877 to raise a revolt among the peasants of the Chigirinsky district with the help of a forged royal charter failed and discredited the organization. The disruptive acts of "Land and Freedom" were originally in the nature of revenge and self-defense.
In January 1878, V. I. Zasulich, a longtime member of the populist movement, shot at the St. Petersburg mayor F. F. Trepov, who ordered that a political prisoner be subjected to corporal punishment. The jury acquitted Zasulich, which was received with enthusiasm by the advanced public. For the populist revolutionaries, the verdict of the court became an indicator of public sympathy for their activities and pushed them onto the path of terror.
The Crisis of Land and Freedom. They began to make attempts on government officials, in August 1878 S. M. Kravchinsky killed the head of the III department N. V. Mezentsov with a dagger on the streets of St. Petersburg. The landowners began to consider terror as a means of influencing the people. The leaflet of Land and Freedom stated: "It is necessary to put the revolutionary party in the eyes of the peasantry in the place that its mythical tsar occupies with them." On April 2, 1879, A.K. Solovyov, a land-owner, fired at Alexander II. The attempt was unsuccessful, Solovyov was hanged.
In the ranks of "Land and Freedom" a crisis has ripened. The supporters of terror, the "politicians", were opposed by his opponents, the "villagers". In June 1879, a congress was held in Voronezh, which led to a compromise. He left the program of the organization unchanged, but recognized terror as a method of conducting political struggle. The participants in the congress spoke in favor of regicide. A consistent opponent of terror was GV Plekhanov, who, left alone, left the congress and withdrew from the organization. Soon there was a complete split at the St. Petersburg congress. The "villagers" made up the "Chernyperedel" society, and the "politicians" - "Narodnaya Volya".
The Chernoperedelites did not accept terror, they refused to conduct a political struggle; they continued propaganda activities in the countryside, which did not give any visible results and doomed their undertakings to failure. A few years later, the organization disbanded.
Pyotr Nikitich Tkachev. Narodnaya Volya declared merciless war on the autocracy. The party organ wrote: "There is no other outcome from this fierce battle: either the government will crush the movement, or the revolutionaries will overthrow the government." The Narodnaya Volya followed the theory of Tkachev, who was convicted in the Nechaev case, fled abroad, where he published the Nabat magazine.
P. N. Tkachev was the ideologist of Russian Blanquism and argued that with the help of a conspiracy a group of revolutionaries could seize power and, relying on it, begin socialist transformations. He taught that the autocracy "has nothing to do with the existing social system", it "hangs in the air", which makes it possible for the Russian revolutionaries to strike several decisive blows at the "government abandoned by everyone." Considering that the Russian peasant was "a communist by instinct, by tradition," he considered the realization of the ideals of socialism an easy task. Tkachev wrote: "The immediate goal of the revolution should be nothing else than to seize government power and turn the given, conservative state into a revolutionary state."

Walking among the people

For the first time the slogan "To the people!" was put forward by A.I. organized workshops, young people mastered crafts. The mass "going to the people" of democratic youth in Russia in the spring of 1874 was a spontaneous phenomenon that did not have a single plan, program, or organization.

Among the participants were both supporters of P.L. Lavrov, who advocated the gradual preparation of a peasant revolution through socialist propaganda, and supporters of M.A. Bakunin, who sought an immediate revolt. The democratic intelligentsia also participated in the movement, trying to get closer to the people and serve them with their knowledge. Practical activity "among the people" erased the differences between directions, in fact, all participants conducted "flying propaganda" of socialism, wandering around the villages.

According to official data, 37 provinces of European Russia were covered by propaganda. In the second half of the 1870s. “Walking among the people” took the form of “settlements” organized by “Earth and Freedom”, the “flying” propaganda was replaced by “sedentary propaganda” (settlement “among the people”). From 1873 to March 1879, 2,564 people were brought to the inquiry in the case of revolutionary propaganda, the main participants in the movement were convicted in the “trial of the 193s”. Revolutionary populism of the 70s, vol. 1. - M., 1964. - S.102-113.

"Going to the people" was defeated, first of all, because it was based on the utopian idea of ​​populism about the possibility of the victory of the peasant revolution in Russia. "Walking to the People" did not have a leading center, most of the propagandists did not have the skills of conspiracy, which allowed the government to crush the movement relatively quickly.

"Going to the people" was a turning point in the history of revolutionary populism. His experience prepared a departure from "Bakuninism", accelerated the process of maturation of the idea of ​​the need for a political struggle against the autocracy, the creation of a centralized, conspiratorial organization of revolutionaries.

The activity of the revolutionary (rebellious) trend in populism

1870s were a new stage in the development of the revolutionary democratic movement, in comparison with the 60s, the number of its participants increased immeasurably. "Walking to the People" revealed the organizational weakness of the populist movement and determined the need for a single centralized organization of revolutionaries. An attempt to overcome the revealed organizational weakness of populism was the creation of the "All-Russian Social Revolutionary Organization" (late 1874 - early 1875).

In the mid 70s. the problem of the concentration of revolutionary forces in a single organization became central. It was discussed at populist congresses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, in exile, and debated in the pages of the illegal press. The revolutionaries had to choose a centralist or federal principle of organization, to determine the attitude towards the socialist parties in other countries.

As a result of the revision of programmatic, tactical and organizational views in 1876, a new populist organization arose in St. Petersburg, which in 1878 received the name "Land and Freedom". The great merit of the landowners was the creation of a strong and disciplined organization, which Lenin called "excellent" for that time and a "model" for the revolutionaries.

In practical work, "Land and Freedom" moved from "wandering" propaganda, characteristic of the 1st stage of "going to the people", to sedentary rural settlements. Disappointment in the results of propaganda, intensified government repressions, on the one hand, and public excitement in the midst of a second revolutionary situation brewing in the country, on the other, contributed to the aggravation of disagreements within the organization.

The majority of the Narodniks were convinced of the need for a transition to a direct political struggle against the autocracy. The populists of the South of the Russian Empire were the first to embark on this path. Gradually, terror became one of the main means of revolutionary struggle. At first, these were acts of self-defense and revenge for the atrocities of the tsarist administration, but the weakness of the mass movement led to the growth of populist terror. Then "terror was the result - as well as a symptom and a companion - of disbelief in the uprising, the absence of conditions for the uprising." Lenin V.I. Full composition of writings. - 5th ed. - v.12. - P.180.

going to the people

mass movement of youth in the countryside. It began in the spring of 1873, the greatest scope - the spring - summer of 1874. Objectives: the study of the people, the promotion of socialist ideas, the organization of peasant uprisings. Centers: St. Petersburg and Moscow circles of "Chaikovites", "Kyiv Commune". Covered 37 lips. European Russia. By November 1874, St. 4 thousand people, the most active participants, were convicted under the "trial of the 193rd".

Walking among the people

"Walking to the People" mass movement of democratic youth to the countryside in Russia in the 1870s. For the first time the slogan "To the people!" put forward by A. I. Herzen in connection with the student unrest of 1861 (see The Bell, fol. 110). In the 1860s - early 1870s. attempts to rapprochement with the people and revolutionary propaganda among them were made by members of the Land and Freedom, the Ishutin circle, the Ruble Society, and the Dolgushinites. The leading role in the ideological preparation of the movement was played by P. L. Lavrov’s Historical Letters (1870), which called on the intelligentsia to “pay their debt to the people,” and V. V. Bervi’s (N. Flerovsky’s) The Condition of the Working Class in Russia. Preparation for the mass "X. in n. began in the fall of 1873: the formation of circles intensified, among which the main role belonged to the Chaikovites, the publication of propaganda literature was established (the printing houses of the Chaikovites in Switzerland, and I. N. Myshkin in Moscow), peasant clothing was prepared, and young people mastered crafts in specially arranged workshops. The mass “Kh. in n. It was a spontaneous phenomenon that did not have a single plan, program, or organization. Among the participants were both supporters of P. L. Lavrov, who advocated the gradual preparation of a peasant revolution through socialist propaganda, and supporters of M. A. Bakunin, who strove for an immediate revolt. The democratic intelligentsia also participated in the movement, trying to get closer to the people and serve them with their knowledge. Practical activity "among the people" erased the differences between directions, in fact, all participants conducted "flying propaganda" of socialism, wandering around the villages. The only attempt to raise a peasant uprising was the Chigirinsky Conspiracy (1877).

The movement that began in the central provinces of Russia (Moscow, Tver, Kaluga, Tula) soon spread to the Volga region (Yaroslavl, Samara, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov and other provinces) and Ukraine (Kyiv, Kharkov, Kherson, Chernigov provinces). According to official data, 37 provinces of European Russia were covered by propaganda. The main centers were: the Potapovo estate of the Yaroslavl province (A. I. Ivanchin-Pisarev, N. A. Morozov), Penza (D. M. Rogachev), Saratov (P. I. Voinaralsky), Odessa (F. V. Volkhovsky, brothers Zhebunev), “Kyiv Commune” (V. K. Debogoriy-Mokrievich, E. K. Breshko-Breshkovskaya), etc. In “H. in n. O. V. Aptekman, M. D. Muravskii, D. A. Klements, S. F. Kovalik, M. F. Frolenko, S. M. Kravchinsky, and many others actively participated. the movement continued in 1875. In the 2nd half of the 1870s. "X. in n. took the form of "settlements" organized by "Earth and Freedom", the "flying" was replaced by "sedentary propaganda" (settlement "among the people"). From 1873 to March 1879, 2564 people were involved in the inquiry into the case of revolutionary propaganda, the main participants in the movement were convicted in the “trial of the 193s”. "X. in n. was defeated primarily because it was based on the utopian idea of ​​populism about the possibility of the victory of the peasant revolution in Russia. "X. in n. did not have a leading center, most of the propagandists did not have the skills of conspiracy, which allowed the government to crush the movement relatively quickly. "X. in n. was a turning point in the history of revolutionary populism. His experience prepared a departure from Bakuninism, accelerated the process of maturation of the idea of ​​the need for a political struggle against the autocracy, the creation of a centralized, clandestine organization of revolutionaries.

Source: Trial of the 193s, M., 1906: Revolutionary Populism of the 70s. XIX in Sat. documents, vol. 1≈2, M. ≈ L., 1964≈65; Agitational literature of Russian revolutionary populists, L., 1970; Ivanchin-Pisarev A.I., Going to the people, [M. ≈ L., 1929]; Kovalik S.F., The revolutionary movement of the seventies and the process of the 193s, M., 1928; Lavrov P. L., Narodnik propagandists of 1873≈1878, 2nd ed., L., 1925.

Lit .: Bogucharsky V. Ya., Active populism of the seventies, M., 1912; Itenberg B. S., Movement of revolutionary populism, M., 1965; Troitsky N. A., Large Propaganda Society 1871≈1874, Saratov, 1963; Filippov R.V., From the history of the populist movement at the first stage of "going to the people", Petrozavodsk, 1967; Ginev VN, Populist movement in the Middle Volga region. 70s of the XIX century., M. ≈ L., 1966; Zakharina V.F., Voice of revolutionary Russia, M., 1971; Kraineva N. Ya., Pronina P. V., Populism in the works of Soviet researchers for 1953-1970, M., 1971.