"The Emperor" Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli(1469 - 1527) - Italian politician, historian and writer.

Machiavelli saw his vocation in political activity, he always strove with all his heart to take an active part in events.

The modest possibilities of the family of the future writer did not allow Niccolo Machiavelli to enter the institute. But his ability to self-educate was truly amazing. While still a young man, Machiavelli was introduced to the basics of legal and commercial sciences, which was very useful to him in his future political life.

In 1498, Machiavelli successfully passed the competition and was appointed by decree of the Great Council to the post of Chancellor of the Second Chancellery, which was far from a minor position.

For 14 years and 5 months of service, Machiavelli wrote more than four thousand official letters and reports, a large number of draft laws, government orders, military orders, made many domestic and 23 foreign trips. He was given complex diplomatic assignments at the courts of the French king, the German emperor, Italian princes, the pope ...

Staying in different countries, Machiavelli studied in detail the various forms of socio-political organizations, revealed their essential features, and objectively compared their capabilities. Based on the study of rich factual material, he raised and tried to solve important theoretical problems in the field of politics, state, administration, and military affairs.

The political activity of Machiavelli was interrupted by the dramatic events of the autumn of 1502 - the death of the republic. Machiavelli was deprived of his post and the right to hold any public office and was expelled. But these events did not break Machiavelli: he finds the strength to engage in literature and scientific research. He wanted to be useful to his country with books.

One of his most important works "Sovereign" Machiavelli created in 1513. It was published only in 1532, after the death of the author.

The works of Machiavelli must be considered as a natural expression of his era. The conditions in which he lived were determined by contradictions in three areas: within the Florentine Republic (the need for the development of a city-state), within Italy (the internecine struggle between the Italian states and the papacy), within Europe (commercial competition, the participation of the Italian republics in big European politics). ).

What was the state of Italy at that time? It has ceased to be a state. All its parts won sovereignty, many turned into seigneuries. With this system, the external forms of the republican system were preserved, but in fact the city-states were ruled by representatives of one noble family, which transferred power according to a purely dynastic principle. Italy became a disorderly mixture of independent states, within which monarchical, aristocratic or democratic rule was established by chance.

Italy became the scene of wars that foreign powers began to wage over her lands. The Germans, the French, the Swiss constantly attacked and plundered Italy.

In these terrible years, the work “The Sovereign” by Niccolo Machiavelli appeared, the reading of which must be approached from the point of view of those historical events.

In his work, which caused a lot of controversy, Machiavelli does not follow the lead of those who offered a touching ideal of a sovereign with only excellent positive qualities. He paints a picture of the realistic qualities that real rulers had and still have. And the advice - how the new sovereign should be in real life - he gives reasoned, referring to the actual events of world history.

The new Sovereign Niccolo Machiavelli is not just a person with a set of qualities and properties, not just an ideal image. Machiavelli thoroughly, carefully, carefully and thoughtfully builds a visible, lively and attractive image of the New Sovereign.

Machiavelli examines in detail such categories and concepts as generosity and frugality, cruelty and mercy, love and hatred.

Considering generosity and thrift, Machiavelli notes that those sovereigns who strove to be generous spent all their wealth in a short time. After the exhaustion of the treasury, they were forced to raise existing and establish new taxes, which led to the hatred of their subjects. Therefore, Machiavelli advises the sovereign not to be afraid to pass for a miser. But then the author considers some possible situations when such advice will not be useful, but harmful. And, as throughout the work, he cites specific historical facts illustrating his statements.

Talking about such qualities as cruelty and mercy, Machiavelli immediately writes that "every sovereign would like to be known as merciful, not cruel." Another thing is that often, in order to retain power, the ruler has to be cruel. If the country is threatened with disorder, then the sovereign is simply obliged to prevent this, even if it is necessary to inflict several massacres. But in relation to numerous subjects, these executions will become an act of mercy, since disorder would bring grief and suffering to them.

It is because of this part of the work that Machiavelli was accused of calling for cruelty and illegibility in the choice of means. The Sovereign is a treatise on the role, place and significance of the head of state, and he was declared a manual for absolute monarchs and dictators. But Machiavelli was not a propagandist of cruelty and hypocrisy, but a researcher of the methods and essence of autocracy.

In addition, the accusers “did not notice” in the same chapter the following words of the author: “However, the new sovereign should not be gullible, suspicious and quick to punish, in all his actions he should be restrained, prudent and merciful.” Machiavelli justified the use of cruel measures only under unavoidable circumstances.

At the same time, as a true ideologist of the bourgeoisie, Machiavelli declares the inviolability of private property, homes and families of citizens. Everything else depends on the sovereign himself, to whom Machiavelli advises to rely only on what depends on himself.

He advises Emperor Machiavelli not to be a romantic in politics. You need to be realistic. This also applies to whether the ruler needs to keep his word. It is necessary, but only if it does not run counter to the interests of his state. The sovereign must act as circumstances dictate to him. “So, of all the animals, let the sovereign become like two: a lion and a fox.” That is, let him be strong, like the king of beasts, and at the same time cunning and resourceful, like a fox. Machiavelli calls on the sovereign to be vigilant.

The predominance of general state interests over private, general political goals over any other determines the nature of the psychology of the new sovereign.

Machiavelli pays much attention to the relationship of the new sovereign with the people.

First of all, he warns that the ruler should not commit acts that could cause hatred or contempt of his subjects. The sovereign can cause contempt for himself by inconstancy, frivolity, effeminacy, cowardice.

It is in this chapter that Machiavelli clearly articulates the inviolability of private property. In no case should the sovereign violate these sacred rights, as this will lead to hatred of the ruler from the people faster than anything else.

The ruler, according to the author of The Sovereign, can face only two dangers: from the outside and from the inside. Against danger from without, one can defend oneself with weapons and valor. And against conspiracies from within, there is one most important means - "not to be hated by the people."

Machiavelli clearly divides the subjects of the sovereign into the nobility and the people. He considers achieving a balance between these groups one of the most important tasks of a wise ruler. Moreover, it is not unreasonable that he believes that the people are a much greater force than noble subjects.

Machiavelli taught not only to establish power, but also attached great importance to how to maintain this power. The author gives advice not abstract, but confirmed by real historical events. On the issue of maintaining power after its conquest, Machiavelli considers a large number of suitable methods: choosing friends and advisers, building or, conversely, destroying fortresses, maintaining an army, etc.

Honoring and respecting the sovereign by his subjects is one of the main conditions for maintaining his power in the country. “Nothing can inspire such reverence for the sovereign as military enterprises and extraordinary deeds,” says Machiavelli. In essence, he sets out a kind of code of conduct and actions of the new sovereign, which should be aimed at increasing his authority at home and abroad, at glorifying his name, virtues and valor.

“The sovereign is also respected if he openly declares himself an enemy or a friend,” that is, he does not hesitate if it is necessary to speak out for or against. Machiavelli draws a multifaceted image of the new sovereign.

The author does not bypass such an important issue as the ruler's advisers - his inner circle. Whether they are good or bad, "depends on the prudence of sovereigns." It is precisely what kind of people the ruler brings closer to his person that speaks of his wisdom. Machiavelli believes that the first mistake or, conversely, the first success of the ruler, is the choice of advisers.

Having chosen good advisers, the sovereign should try to keep their loyalty with the help of wealth and honors.

In one of the chapters of his work, Machiavelli tries to warn the sovereign against flatterers. Protecting yourself from them, not falling under their influence, without losing respect, is not as easy as it seems.

Machiavelli also refutes the widespread opinion that the wisdom of a sovereign largely depends on good advice. This is not so, on the contrary, "it is useless for a sovereign who himself does not have wisdom to give good advice."

Giving the new sovereign unlimited power, Machiavelli, in strict accordance with this, places on him all responsibility for the state of the state, for maintaining and strengthening power. The author advises the ruler to rely less on fate, and pay more attention to ruling, wise and skillful. The sovereign must rely primarily on his ability to govern the state and on the created army, and not on fate.

Although Machiavelli admits that fate is "guilty" of half of the events, he places the other half in the hands of man.

More than once or twice, in various chapters on various subjects, Machiavelli returns to the issue of the sovereign's army. Any army can be attributed, in his opinion, to one of four groups: own, hired, allied and mixed. And constantly, considering various historical situations, the author comes to the conclusion that hired and allied troops are dangerous for the ruler. Machiavelli believes that his own strong army is simply necessary for any ruler who does not want to lose power. The author considers his own army "as the true basis of any military enterprise, because you cannot have better soldiers than your own."

One of the most important achievements of Machiavelli is the isolation of politics into an independent science. Politics, according to Machiavelli's beliefs, is a symbol of a person's faith, and therefore it should occupy a dominant position in the worldview.

Based on the requirements of his time, Machiavelli formulates an important historical task - the creation of a single unitary Italian state. In the course of thought, Machiavelli comes to the conclusion that only the sovereign can lead the people to the construction of a new state. Not a concrete historical personality, but something abstract, symbolic, possessing qualities that in their totality are inaccessible to any living ruler. That is why Machiavelli devotes most of his research to the question: what should be the sovereign in order to fulfill the historical task of building a new state.

The study is built strictly logically, objectively. Machiavelli proceeds from real life experience and tries to build his theoretical constructions on the foundation of this experience. "The Sovereign" is a living picture of that time.

All mentioned persons of the work are real. The author's contemporaries or historical figures are displayed in The Sovereign in order to prove or disprove something. There is nothing accidental in Machiavelli's choice of names, events, places of battles, everything performs a certain function.

The style of the "sovereign" is unusual for scientific works of that time. This is not the style of treatises, but the style of a man of action, a man who wants to cause action.

The works of Machiavelli are the expression of a personality who wants to intervene in the politics and history of his country. Machiavelli is a person who comprehends and reveals the main trends of his era, its main requirements and aspirations, who decided to radically change the further development of his country.

Very indicative in this regard is Chapter IX on the civil principality. In it, Machiavelli reveals the relationship of the sovereign, the nobility and the people among themselves, their interests and goals. Power is acquired through the disposition of the people or the nobility. The nobles want to oppress the people, but the people do not want to be oppressed. As a result, either the nobles nominate a ruler from their ranks, or the people give this title to their chosen one. The power received from the people, Machiavelli considers much more durable, since the sovereign can protect himself from the nobility, but not from the hostile people.

Machiavelli convincingly advises the sovereign never to incur the wrath and hatred of the people. On the contrary, a wise sovereign will always find a way to win over the people to his side. Thus, the alignment of class forces, the structure of political power form the strategy and tactics of all participants in the political life of the state.

Machiavelli's political attitudes rest on fundamental social foundations. The political life of the Italian city-states gave Machiavelli great opportunities for sociological observations.

In the 16th - 17th centuries, his works were sought for help in political and diplomatic art, in the 18th century - for explanations of the methods and techniques of public administration. For the historical school of the 19th century, Machiavelli was an authoritative chronicler and historian; in the 20th century, he is “advised” as a classic of political sociology.

REFERENCES

Machiavelli Niccolo. Sovereign. - In the book: Machiavelli Niccolo. Selected works. M., 1982.

Dolgov K. Humanism, Renaissance and political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli. - In the book: Machiavelli Niccolo. Selected works. M., 1982.

Yusim M.A. Ethics of Machiavelli. - M., 1990.

Temnov E.I. Machiavelli. - M., 1990.

History of political doctrines. Ed. K.A. Mokicheva. - M., 1971.

Rutenburg V.I. Titans of the Renaissance. - M., 1991.

Similar abstracts:

Profound changes in the socio-economic and spiritual life of Italy at the end of the 14th century. played a decisive role in the emergence and development of a pan-European culture, called the Renaissance.

The end justifies the means - this terrible formula, as many believe, produces a double impression: it attracts and frightens, just like its author - Niccolò Machiavelli.

The ideas of N. Machiavelli gave life to the modern sociological theory of elites (V. Pareto, G. Mosca, C. Mills) and influenced the author of the theory of managerial revolution, J. Burnheim.

Machiavelli, Niccolo)