French harpsichordists. French harpsichordists French harpsichordist composers of the 18th century

The development of harpsichordism in France is closely connected with the conditions of court and noble life. As already mentioned, French absolutism had a significant impact on art. Literature, painting, sculpture, music and theater were used to exalt royal power and create a brilliant halo around the "Sun King" (as contemporary aristocrats called Louis XIV). In the first half of the 18th century, during the reign of Louis XV, French absolutism experienced a gradual decline. He became a brake on the path of social development of the country. The huge funds pumped out by the king and the nobility from the third estate were spent on luxury and secular pleasures. Their life credo was aptly expressed by the well-known phrase: “After us, even a flood!” Under these conditions, the gallant style (or rococo) becomes widespread. It vividly reflects the life of a secular society. Festivities, balls, masquerades, pastorals - these are the subjects that were used especially often in the art of rococo. The talented French painter of this time, Antoine Watteau, created a series of paintings on similar subjects. "Ball under the colonnade", "Festival at Versailles", "Departure to the island of Cythera" (the goddess of love - Venus) and many others.

Light flirting, coquetry, "gallant love" gave the aristocrats' amusements a special piquancy. The secular woman was the focus of these entertainments and this art. Poems were written about her, she was depicted in paintings, musical works were dedicated to her.
Rococo art is characterized by miniature forms. The artists created mostly small paintings, in which the figures of people seem to be puppets, and the furnishings are toy. It is noteworthy that in everyday life a secular person surrounded himself with endless trinkets. Even the books were printed in an unusually small size.

Passion for the miniature was clearly reflected in the abundant use of jewelry. The interior trim, furniture, clothes were decorated with ornaments. One art historian calculated that if we unfolded and connected together all the countless bows with which the dandies of that time decorated their costume, we would get a ribbon many tens of meters long.
The picturesque and stucco ornament of the Rococo style was distinguished by openwork and grace. Especially characteristic of it are decorations in the form of curls, from which the style got its name (rococo comes from the French word go-caille - shell).
In line with this gallant art, French harpsichordism also mainly developed. His character was largely determined by the demands of secular society.
In order to visualize them more clearly, let us mentally transport ourselves to the French salon of that time with its elegant decoration, stylish furniture and richly decorated harpsichord on thin curved legs. Dressed-up ladies and gallant cavaliers in wigs are engaged in casual social conversation. Wanting to entertain the guests, the hostess of the salon invites a house musician or some lover known for her "talent" to "try" the instrument. The performer is not expected here to have profound art, full of significant ideas and strong passions. The playing of the harpsichordist should, in essence, continue the same lightweight secular conversation, expressed only in the language of musical sounds.
What was the attitude towards art in aristocratic salons, can be seen from the poem of the French poet of the heyday of the Rococo style - Desforge Mayard:

Harmony is created by your hands.
Embraced by unearthly and sweet charm,
Embarrassed, I give my spirit into his power.
I watch how the fingers are light, like Cupid -
O crafty sorcerers! O gentle tyrants! —
They wander, run along the obedient keys,
They fly with a thousand captivating pranks.
Cyprian children, how frisky and sweet they are,
But to steal the heart, and without them
It is enough that their brother and their mother, triumphant,
They reigned on your lips and sparkled in your eyes** (153, p. 465).
(Translated by E. N. Alekseeva).

The galaxy of French harpsichordists of the late 17th and early 18th centuries shone with such names as Francois Couperin, Jean-Philippe Ramoh, Louis Daquin, Francois Dandrieu. Their work clearly manifested the most important features of the Rococo style. At the same time, these musicians often overcame the prevailing aesthetic requirements and went beyond the purely entertaining and conventional Soviet art.
François Couperin (1668-1733), nicknamed "the great" by his contemporaries, is the largest representative of the Couperin musical family. As a young man, after the death of his father, he received a position as an organist in the church of Saint-Gervais in Paris (the position of organist in those days was hereditary and passed down in the families of musicians from generation to generation). Subsequently, he managed to become a court harpsichordist. In this rank, he remained almost until his death.
Couperin is the author of four collections of harpsichord pieces published in 1713, 1717, 1722 and 1730, ensembles for the clavier with string and wind instruments, as well as other compositions. Among his plays there are many pastorals (“Reapers”, “Grape Pickers”, “Pastoral”) and “portraits of women”, which embody a variety of images (“Florentine”, “Gloomy”, “Sister Monica”, “Teenage Girl” ). You can find subtle psychological traits in them; not without reason, in the preface to the first notebook of his plays, the composer wrote that these "portraits" were "quite similar."
Many of Couperin's plays are based on witty onomatopoeia: The Alarm Clock, The Chirping, The Knitters.
All these names are largely conditional and often without prejudice to the understanding of the meaning of music can be transferred from one piece to another. At the same time, one cannot but admit that the composer often managed to create characteristic and truthful “sketches from nature”.
In the plays of Couperin and other French harpsichordists of his time, the richly ornamented melody clearly dominates the rest of the voices. Often there are only two of them (thus, together with the melody, they form a three-part fabric). Accompanying voices are usually maintained throughout the entire work and sometimes acquire an independent meaning.
The ornamentation in the plays of French harpsichordists is rich and varied. Stylistically, it is related to the picturesque and stucco Rococo ornament. Enveloping the skeleton of the melodic line like ivy wrapping around a tree trunk, melismas add refinement, whimsicality and "airiness" to the melody. It is characteristic that it was in France that ornaments “wrapping around” a melodic note became widespread, and the most typical of them, the gruppetto, was first graphically indicated by a French musician (Chambonnière). Trills, grace notes, and mordents were also widely used in French music.
In the plays of the French harpsichordists of the 18th century, compared with the works of Chambonnière, the melody is distinguished by a greater breadth of breathing. It develops a clear periodicity, which prepares the patterns of melodic development of the Viennese classics.
In connection with the problem of the melody of French harpsichordists, a very important question arises - about the connections of their work with folk music. At first glance, it may seem detached from the popular soil. This conclusion, however, would be hasty and erroneous. The thought of K. A. Kuznetsov, who argued that in Couperin “through the aristocratic thin attire of his harpsichord pieces, the music of a village round dance, a village song, with its structure, makes its way is profoundly fair” (56, p. 120).
Indeed, if we imagine the melodic line of some of these pieces without its ornamental decoration, we will hear a simple motive in the spirit of French folk songs.
In the work of Couperin, symptoms of the decomposition of the suite are found. Although formally the composer combines his pieces into cycles (he calls them ordres - sets), there is no organic connection between the individual parts of the suite. Exceptions in this regard are rare. These may include an interesting attempt to combine several plays with a common program concept (the "Young Years" suite, which includes the pieces: "The Birth of a Muse", "Childhood", "A Teenage Girl" and "Charms", or the "Domino" cycle of 12 pieces , depicting images of a masquerade).

Couperin is characterized by searches in the field of miniature, which meet the task of embodying various moods and small, “jewelry” work on details, and not the search for a monumental form capable of conveying large ideological concepts. Here he showed himself as an artist, standing on the aesthetic positions of the rococo.
However, if with regard to the choice of the type of harpsichord work, Couperin shows a tendency to move away from large forms (suites), then nevertheless his miniature is more developed and larger in scale than individual parts of the suite cycle of the 17th century. Particularly new and important from the point of view of the processes of the future development of instrumental art was the creation by Couperin of contrast within a separate work (rondo form), which sharply distinguishes his work from the works of Chambonnière. True, the contrast in Couperin is still relatively small. "Choruses" and "verses" in his pieces are far from being as contrasting as in the Rondo of the Viennese classics. In addition, Couperin's music is much more connected with dance, being more "suite" than "sonata" in this respect. However, an important step towards the preparation of the classicist style of the late 18th century, in particular the cyclic sonata (primarily some types of its last movements), Couperin has already taken.
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764) is a representative of a later generation of French harpsichordists, and although his clavier work chronologically coincides with Couperin's, it has new features in comparison with this latter. What is new in Rameau is apparently determined primarily by the somewhat different nature of his creative activity than that of Couperin, and above all by the fact that in the first period of his life—during the years of creating clavier compositions—he was associated with other social circles.
Ramo was born into a musician's family. In his youth, he worked as a violinist in an opera troupe, with which he traveled around Italy, then he was an organist in various cities of France. In parallel, Ramo was engaged in creativity; he created, among other works, for the harpsichord quite a few pieces and a number of ensembles. It is important to note that Rameau, in addition, wrote during these years music for such a democratic genre as fairground comedies. This music was partially used by him in harpsichord pieces (perhaps, as T. N. Livanova suggests, in the famous "Tambourine" and "Peasant Woman").
An outstanding opera and harpsichord composer, Rameau was also a theoretical musician who played a major role in the development of the theory of harmony.

A wide musical outlook, creative work in various genres - from opera to the French fair comedy, the versatile performing experience of the organist, harpsichordist and violinist - all this was reflected in Rameau's clavier art. In some of its facets, it closely adjoins the work of F. Couperin. There are many pieces by these composers, stylistically very close to each other. There is no doubt that the two outstanding contemporaries did not escape mutual influence.
In many of Rameau's compositions, however, there is a desire for less whimsicality and ornamental ornamentation of the melodic pattern, for a freer interpretation of dance forms, for a more developed and virtuoso texture. Thus, in the Gigue e-moll, written in the form of a rondo, genre-dance features are hidden and the melodious style of sentimentalist composers of the middle of the 18th century is anticipated (L. Godovsky, when processing this gigue, even turned it into an "Elegy"). It is characterized by both sensitive turns of the melody, and a smaller number of decorations, and accompaniment, reminiscent of the "Alberti basses" popular in a later period - decomposed chords named after the Italian composer of the first half of the 18th century Alberti, who began to use them widely (note 11 ).
The most daring textural innovations of Rameau are associated with images that go beyond the usual rococo themes. In the play "Solon simpletons", which reproduces a village dance, a broad presentation of the figuration in the left hand appears (note 12).
When conveying the image of the passionate impetuous "Gypsy", Rameau also uses figures not typical for the Rococo style in the form of broken arpeggios (note 13).
An unusual texture is used by Rameau in the piece "Whirlwinds", where the arpeggio, performed alternately with two hands, captures a range of several octaves (note 14).
Among the plays of other harpsichordists of the French school of the first half of the 18th century,< Кукушка» Дакена — действительно очень талантливое произведение, мастерски созданное на основе одного мотива — «кукования» кукушки. Значительный художественный интерес представляют некоторые пьесы Дандриё («Дудочки» и другие). Среди его сочинений обращает на себя внимание рондо «Страждущая» (или «Воздыхающая»), написанное в сугубо чувствительных тонах и свидетельствующее об усилении во французском клавесинизме к середине столетия тенденций сентиментализма (прим. 15).
Let us briefly summarize the characteristic features of the style of French harpsichord music of the Rococo period in the form in which they manifested themselves in the work of its best representatives.
We see that, despite the stylistic clarity and certainty, this music is fraught with contradictions.
Paying tribute to the conditional theme of Rococo, the French harpsichordists in their best works create elements of life-truthful art, outlining to a certain extent a genre-pictorial and lyrical-psychological direction in music.
The melody of the harpsichord rococo, the main expressive beginning of this music, despite the fashionable ornamental attire, reveals links with the life-giving spring of folk art and to a certain extent anticipates the musical language of the classics of the late 18th century.
Reflecting the typical features of Rococo art: sophistication, refinement, gravitation towards miniature, towards smoothing out “sharp corners”, the harpsichord miniature-rondo at the same time prepares the contrast, dynamism and monumentality of the classical sonata.
Outside of this inconsistency, it is impossible to understand why the best of the heritage of the French harpsichordists continues to attract us even now - performers and listeners who live by completely different aesthetic ideals.

The heyday of French harpsichordism manifested itself not only in the field of composing music, but also in the performing and pedagogical arts.
The most important sources for the study of these areas of musical art, in addition to monuments of composers, are clavier manuals. The most significant of them is F. Couperin's treatise "The Art of Playing the Harpsichord" (1716), which systematizes the characteristic performing principles of French harpsichordists and gives many interesting pedagogical tips, which have partially not lost their significance to this day. Another pedagogical work of that period is also very interesting - Rameau's Method of Finger Mechanics, published in the second book of his harpsichord pieces (1724). It is devoted to only one problem - the technical development of the student.

On the basis of these treatises and other sources available to us, we note the most important features of the performing and pedagogical art of French harpsichordists in the first half of the 18th century and dwell on some of the problems that arise in the interpretation of their compositions.
First of all, the attention that was paid to the appearance of the performer behind the instrument is characteristic. It should not have seemed to the listeners that playing the harpsichord was a serious occupation, since work, according to the concepts of a secular person, is the lot of a servant, “common people”. “Behind the harpsichord,” Couperin teaches in his manual, “one must sit at ease; the look should not be either intently focused on any subject, or scattered; in a word, one must look at society as if one were not busy with anything” (141, pp. 5-6). Couperin warns against emphasizing the beat while playing with the movement of the head, body or foot. In his opinion, this is not only an unnecessary habit that interferes with the listener and the performer. This is not appropriate. In order to “get rid of grimaces” during the game, he recommends looking at yourself in the mirror during the exercise, which suggests placing the harpsichord on the music stand.
All this "chivalry" of the performer's behavior, reminiscent of the traditional smile of ballerinas in classical ballet, is a very characteristic feature of the performing arts of the Rococo era.
One of the most important tasks of the harpsichordist was the ability to subtly, tastefully perform ornamentation in the melody. In the 17th century, the coloring of the melody was largely carried out by the performer. “In the choice of jewelry,” Saint-Lambert wrote in his manual, “there is complete freedom. In the pieces being learned, decorations can be played even in places where they are not shown. You can throw out the decorations in the plays if they are found to be unsuitable, and replace them with others of your choice” (190, p. 124). Over time, the attitude towards improvisational changes in melismas became different. The development of subtle and sophisticated craftsmanship, in which the smallest ornamental details acquired great importance and served as an indicator of the "true taste" of the musician, fettered the improvisational beginning in the performing arts. Judging by some of Couperin's statements, already in his time in the French harpsichord school, improvisation began to gradually degenerate. She began to oppose the performing arts, based on the careful learning of pre-written and thoughtful compositions in every detail. Couperin is especially uncompromisingly opposed to improvisational changes in decorations in his works. In the preface to the third book of harpsichord pieces, he insists with amazing insistence, even in a somewhat irritated tone so unusual for his literary style, on the need to literally fulfill all the details of the text, otherwise, he says, his pieces will not make the proper impression on people who have real taste.
These words of one of the greatest clavier players of his time have not lost their meaning to this day. Every pianist who plays pieces by old masters should remember them.
Compared to musicians from other national schools, French harpsichordists give more precise rules for deciphering an ornament. In this one cannot fail to see the influence of rationalism, characteristic of French culture, which gave rise to the desire for clarity and the subordination of artistic creativity to strictly established logical patterns.
Acquaintance with the practice of deciphering melismas by French harpsichordists is important because it largely determined the principles of making jewelry in other national schools. Such, for example, Couperin's instructions, as the execution of a trill from the upper auxiliary or a grace note due to the subsequent duration, were shared by most musicians of the first half of the 18th century.
Here are some samples of F. Couperin's melismas and their decoding according to the instructions given by the composer (note, 16).

Limited in terms of dynamic palette by the features of the instrument, French harpsichordists, apparently, sought to compensate for the monotony of dynamics with a variety of timbre. It can be assumed that, like modern harpsichord players, they changed colors when repeating rondo refrains or enhanced the contrasts between verses and refrains using the timbres at their disposal. Skillful use of various registers (lute, bassoon and others) undoubtedly gives harpsichord works greater characteristic and brightness. As an example of the recording of a harpsichord miniature by modern performers, consider the interpretation of the famous Couperin play The Reapers by Zuzana Ruzickova (note 17).
All refrains, with the exception of the third, are performed by her forte. The lyrical nature of the first two verses is revealed by a different, lighter coloring of sonority. The contrast between the refrain and the third verse, which is top in terms of pitch, is emphasized by its performance an octave higher and a silvery timbre of sound. Thus, the registration is in accordance with the general line of development of the verses, outlined by the composer, to the “quiet” climax in the third verse and enhances the relief of the opposition of two figurative spheres - dances “group” and “individualized” (this is also facilitated by the rhythm - very definite in the refrains and with rubato elements in couplets).
Using the rich dynamic possibilities of the piano, the pianist must tirelessly take care of the brilliance of the performance, since it is especially difficult to achieve it. To enrich the sound palette, you need to skillfully use dynamics and pedals. Not every pedal and not every dynamics contribute to enhancing the colorfulness of the performance. Sometimes these expressive means can cause the opposite effect. In order to achieve timbre diversity, one should use contrasting pedal colors and the so-called "terraced" dynamics. Contrasting pedal colors do not mean the continuous use of the pedal, but the alternation of constructions without pedals (or almost without pedals) and heavily pedaled ones. In constructions that should sound very transparent, sometimes you have to use the lightest pedal strokes. The significance of this kind of pedalization for the transmission of harpsichord pieces to the piano is emphasized by N. I. Golubovskaya in her preface to the compositions of the English virginalists. “A particularly important role in the performance of harpsichord works,” it states, “acquires the possession of subtle gradations of the depth of pressing the pedal. An incomplete, sometimes barely pressed pedal retains polyphonic transparency, softening the dryness of the tone” (32, p. 4).
The principle of "terraced" dynamics consists in the predominant use of contrasting comparisons of sonority strength gradations. This does not mean, of course, that the use of other dynamic shades is excluded. It's just that the defining principle is contrast, and not the smoothness of the transition from one force of sonority to another. Within the limits of any one segment of the dynamic scale, for example, within the piano or forte, minor diminuendo and crescendo can and should be used.
Many composers of that era wrote slow melodious pieces for the harpsichord. Couperin and other French harpsichordists have many such compositions. Characteristically, in pieces requiring legato sonority, harpsichordists recommended that the game be as coherent as possible. Couperin in such cases suggested sometimes using the substitution of fingers on one key.
It is quite natural that, given the great possibilities of legato performance that exist on the modern piano, we must realize the wishes of the harpsichordists and, in necessary cases, where the nature of the music requires it, strive to achieve maximum coherence and melodiousness of sound.

It is in this plan that he performs the plays of F. Couperin and J.-F. Rameau pianist Helen Bosky (recording of the Czech company "Suprafon"). They appear in all the charm of their artistic sophistication and at the same time without special emphasis on the elements of mannerism, ceremonial etiquette inherent in the art of the Rococo style. Like Ruzickova, Bosky focuses primarily on revealing the emotional content of the plays, the richness of the shades of feelings imprinted in them. At the same time, the pianist to a certain extent reproduces the timbre-dynamic features of the sound of the harpsichord, but, using the expressive possibilities of the piano, she gives the development of musical thoughts greater intonational variability and expressiveness. A characteristic example is F. Couperin's interpretation of the Sarabande in h-moll. The author called it "The Only One", expressing, apparently, his special attitude to the image imprinted in it. In the gallery of "female portraits" of French harpsichordists, Sarabande stands out for the unusual tension of the emotional sphere, the strength of the restrained, but ready to break out dramatic feelings, sometimes illuminated by the light of a sincere lyrical expression. The play attracts with the expressiveness of its melos, the intonational content of which is convexly shaded by colorful, bold for that time harmonic turns.
To convey on the harpsichord all the richness of the music of the miniature in full is not possible. Indeed: how to achieve on it the necessary vocal and speech flexibility of pronouncing a melody that requires constant changes in the strength of the sound (the task is further complicated by the abundance of melismas, which should organically merge with the main sounds of the melody) (note 18)?

How can this dynamically changeable melodic line be correlated with the voices accompanying it, which sometimes serve as a soft background, then, like the bass in the second measure, come to the fore? How to reveal the poetic charm of the low level VI in the fourth and fifth measures, the subtlest effect of the "overflow" of harmony from the low register to the upper one, when it appears in a completely different colorful illumination, caused to a large extent by the especially intense "glow" of the melodic sound?
On the piano, these tasks are quite solvable. Bosca's performance can serve as proof of this. At the most crucial moment, when the “quiet” climax is realized (bars 2 and 3 of Example 18 6), the listener’s attention is attracted not only by the special softness of the sound of the arpeggiated minor sixth chord, its melodic voice, but also by a slight slowdown in tempo. In the imagination, dear memories seem to emerge that I want to relive. We also note the performance of a diminished seventh chord at the beginning of the next measure. The reduced seventh chord, mercilessly "exploited" by romantic composers, sounded still fresh in Couperin's time. His first and only appearance in the play was to give the impression of harmonic unusualness. That's how the pianist heard it. She gives it a slightly muted coloration and with this sudden shading of emotional coloring prepares the perception of the further impulsive-dramatic development of the music.
To convey such subtle nuances of feelings that require flexible timbre-dynamic changes in sound, the expressive means of the piano turn out to be necessary to an even greater extent than when performing the first section of the piece.
Of great importance when interpreting harpsichord miniatures is the subtle rendering by the performer of the dance metro-rhythm, which gives many pieces that have not yet lost their connection with dance a special charm and genuine vitality. It is no coincidence that in the treatises of French harpsichordists there are indications
precisely for this type of performing metrorhythm - elastic, active. Wanda Landowska's performance of Rameau's "Tambourine" and many other pieces by harpsichordists are permeated with this kind of dance beginning.
Let us note some characteristic principles of the French harpsichordists in the motor area.
Their virtuosity in comparison with the virtuosity of contemporary claviers of other national schools - J. S. Bach, Scarlatti - was of a relatively limited type. They used only fine finger technique and, moreover, mainly positional technique, that is, passages and figurations within the position of the hand without placing the first finger. But in the field of finger technique, French harpsichordists achieved amazing perfection. According to Saint-Lambert, the Parisian virtuosos were distinguished by such a developed “independence” of their fingers that they could equally freely perform trills with any fingers.
The methodological principles of the French harpsichordists, which underlay the development of motor skills, are most clearly formulated by Rameau in his pedagogical work already mentioned. In general, this system of views was progressive for that time.
Among the most advanced installations of Rameau, it is necessary to note his advocacy of the enormous opportunities for the development of man's natural inclinations, subject to persistent, purposeful and conscious work. “Of course, not everyone has the same abilities,” Rameau wrote. “However, unless there is some particular defect that interferes with the normal movements of the fingers, the possibility of developing them to such a degree of perfection that our playing can be pleasing depends entirely on ourselves, and I dare to say that the assiduous and directed work necessary effort and some time will inevitably straighten the fingers, even the least gifted. Who dares to rely only on natural abilities? How can one hope to discover them without undertaking the necessary preliminary work to discover them? And what then can be attributed to the success achieved, if not this particular work? (186, p. XXXV). These words of a leading figure in bourgeois culture in the period of its formation, imbued with unshakable confidence in the strength of the human mind, in the possibility of overcoming significant difficulties, contrast sharply with the fabrications of some modern bourgeois scientists who propagate the fatalistic predetermination of the development of human abilities by his innate inclinations.

One of the most fruitful principles of the harpsichord technique in the motor area was the tireless struggle against harmful muscle tension. The need for freedom of the motor apparatus during the game was repeatedly emphasized by Couperin. Ramo also talks a lot about this. Of great value are his remarks about the need to maintain the flexibility of the wrist when playing. “This flexibility,” he remarks, “then also extends to the fingers, making them completely free and giving them the necessary lightness” (186, p. XXXVI).
It is also important to use Rameau's new fingering techniques, namely: placing the first finger, which is undoubtedly connected with the appearance of a more developed texture in his compositions.
It was widely believed that J.S. Bach "invented" this technique. It came from the light hand of F. E. Bach, who expressed it in his methodical work. Meanwhile, there are good reasons not to attribute this innovation to J. S. Bach alone. It began to spread in various national schools, and in France, probably even earlier than in Germany. At least the already mentioned Denis, the author of a treatise on spinet tuning (recall that the treatise was published back in 1650), recommended that all fingers be widely used. “When I began to study,” he wrote, “teachers adhered to the rule that when playing you can’t use the thumb of your right hand; however, later I became convinced that even if a person had as many hands as Briareus (a giant from ancient mythology who had one hundred arms and fifty heads. - A. A), they would still be used by everyone when playing, even if If there were not so many keys on the keyboard” (143, p. 37).
There is reason to believe that in the first half of the 18th century, the thumb began to be widely used by some Italian clavier players. D. Scarlatti, according to the memoirs of his contemporaries, said that he saw no reason why not to use all ten fingers when playing, if nature gave them to man. These words, apparently, should be understood as advice to use the insertion of the first finger. From the 30s of the 18th century, a new fingering principle, called "Italian", began to spread in England. If we admit that Scarlatti did indeed use the thumb, then it is likely that it was he who brought this fingering technique to England.
The laying of the first finger is an innovation of great importance. It quickly advanced the development of clavier technique. At the same time, this technique, having facilitated the overcoming of many technical difficulties, as is usually the case in such cases, in turn influenced the development of clavier texture, contributing to its subsequent complication. Initially applied by the most outstanding virtuosos of their time, the new fingering principles began to gradually spread among ordinary performers. It took, however, several more decades for them to finally gain a foothold in practice. Throughout the 18th century, along with the insertion of the first finger, the ancient fingering based on the shifting of the middle fingers was also widely used. Even at the end of the century, D. G. Türk, one of the most respected piano teachers, wrote in his manual that he did not dare to discard this fingering, despite the fact that he would allow it to be used only in rare cases. Only in the 19th century did the principle of putting the first finger firmly established in piano pedagogy. As for the technique of shifting fingers, it does not completely disappear from practice. It is used when playing double notes, in polyphony, in some passages (see, for example, Chopin's Etude a-moll op. 10).

Along with these principles, which have not lost their progressive significance for the entire subsequent history of pianistic culture, Rameau has statements that are historically transitory, but very typical of that time. He believed, for example, that such complex and finely organized psychological phenomena as the process of exercise could be reduced "to simple mechanics." This was reflected in the limitations of the scientific thinking of the 18th century, inherent even in the most outstanding thinkers of that time - the materialist philosophers. “The materialism of the last century,” wrote Engels, “was predominantly mechanical, because of all the natural sciences by that time only mechanics had reached a certain completion. In the eyes of the materialists of the eighteenth century, man was a machine, just as the animal was in the eyes of Descartes. This application exclusively of the scale of mechanics to processes of a chemical and organic nature - in the field of which mechanical laws, although they continue to operate, but recede into the background before other, higher laws - constitutes the first peculiar, but then inevitable limitation of classical French materialism ”(3 , p. 286).
In an effort to exclude as much as possible the movement of the hand, Rameau says that it should be "as if dead" and serve only to "support the fingers attached to it and move them to those places on the keyboard that they cannot reach on their own" (186, pp. XXXVI).
After "setting" the fingers on the keyboard, Ramo suggests starting a game of exercises - the "First Lesson". This "First Lesson" is nothing but a sequence of five sounds: do, re, mi, fa, sol. The author recommends learning it at first with each hand separately, then “in all sorts of ways, until you feel that the hands have acquired such a skill that there is no longer anything to fear from violating the correctness of their Movements” (186, p. XXXVII).
From the point of view of Soviet subagogues, the above principles of Rameau do not stand up to scrutiny. Not to mention the fallacy of reducing the exercises to "simple mechanics", it is wrong to strive for the hand to be as if "dead", it is inappropriate to immediately start with exercises like Rameau's "First Lesson".
However, for its time, this system of motor principles was advanced. It reflected the progressive tendencies towards the introduction of the scientific method of thinking into the pedagogical art and towards the rationalization of the process of technical education of the student. It was associated with the practice of harpsichord performance, based on the use of fine finger technique within the relatively small range of the instrument.

The works of French harpsichordists, once very popular, by the end of the 18th century had ceased to occupy any significant place in the performing and pedagogical repertoire. The revival of this music in France began in the last decades of the last century. It was explained to a certain extent by the development of aesthetic and stylistic tendencies, but in many ways also by the healthy desire of progressive musicians to develop national classical traditions.
Russian musicians also showed interest in the works of French harpsichordists of the 18th century. Let us recall the performance of works by Couperin and Rameau by Anton Rubinstein in his Historical Concerts. Rachmaninoff's performance of "The Cuckoo" by Daken can serve as a remarkable example of the original interpretation of the harpsichord miniature. Unlike some pianists, who give this piece an elegiac and languid character, the brilliant pianist sharpens its inherent features of elegant humor and cheerful enthusiasm. A witty detail plays a significant role in creating such an image - a strong rhythmic "draw" of a short sound in the "cooking" motif.
Among the Soviet performers of works by French harpsichordists, we note E. Beckman-Shcherbina, N. Golubovskaya, G. Kogan, M. Nemenova-Lunts, N. Perelman. G. Kogan also contributed to the promotion of the harpsichord heritage with his lectures and articles.
There is an academic-type edition of the complete works of F. Couperin, made by a group of French musicologists headed by Maurice Cauchy (Paris, 1932-1933), and of Rameau's works, edited by C. Saint-Saens (Paris, 1895-1918).
An idea of ​​the first edition of F. Couperin's pieces is given by a four-volume collection of his harpsichord works, released in Budapest in 1969-1971 by the Hungarian pianist and harpsichordist J. Gat. A similar type of publication is the volume of complete works for harpsichord by Rameau, published in 1972 by the Muzyka publishing house (editor L. Roshchina, introductory article by V. Bryantseva). A large number of plays by F. Couperin, Rameau and other French harpsichordists, provided with detailed notes on the nature of their performance, are contained in three collections compiled by A. Yurovsky (Moscow, 1935, 1937).

Report on the history of sciences

the topic "Music of France in the 18th century"

10th grade student of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics

Lyceum №1525 "Sparrow Hills"

Kazakov Philip.

The first thing to say about the music of France in the 18th century is that, unlike the leading countries in the field of music (such as Germany, Austria, Spain and Italy), France could not boast of either a large number of particularly famous composers or performers, nor a rich assortment of well-known works. Gluck is considered the most famous French composer of that time, but he was also from Germany. In part, this situation was dictated by the interests of society, which determined the styles of music. Consider the development of music in the 18th century.

At the beginning of the century, the most popular style of music was sentimental classicism. It was slow unhurried music, not particularly complex. They played it on stringed instruments. Usually she accompanied balls and feasts, but they also liked to listen to her in a relaxed homely atmosphere.

Then, features and techniques began to fall into lute music Rococo, such as trill and flag. It has acquired a more intricate look, musical phrases have become more complex and interesting. The music has become more detached from reality, more fantastic, less correct and thus closer to the listener.

Closer to the second half of the 18th century, the features of Rococo so merged into music that it began to acquire a certain orientation. So, soon two directions clearly emerged in music: music for dancing and music for singing. Balls were accompanied by music for dancing, music for singing sounded in a confidential setting. Often, aristocrats also liked to sing to the sounds of a home harpsichord. At the same time, a new theatrical genre of comedy-ballet appeared, combining dialogue, dance and pantomime, instrumental, sometimes vocal music. Its creators are J. B. Moliere and composer J. B. Lully. The genre had a significant impact on the subsequent development of French musical theatre.

Following a more subtle separation of musical genres, marching music began to appear. It was harsh, loud, noisy music. At this time, percussion instruments (drums and cymbals) became widespread, which set the rhythm, thereby depriving the work of the performance's individuality. There was also much use of instruments such as the trumpet, which mainly served to increase the overall volume of the music. It was due to the appearance of drummers and loud instruments that French music of the late 18th century, in my opinion, became especially primitive and not outstanding. The crowning achievement of marching music was the appearance of the work "La Marseillaise", written by Rouger De Lisle in 1792.

Rouget De Lisle Claude Joseph (1760-1836) French military engineer, poet and composer. He wrote hymns, songs, romances. In 1792 he wrote the composition " Marseillaise”, which later became the anthem of France.

Francois Couperin (1668-1733)- French composer, harpsichordist, organist. From a dynasty comparable to the German Bach dynasty, as there were several generations of musicians in his family. Couperin was nicknamed "the great Couperin" partly because of his sense of humor, partly because of his character. His work is the pinnacle of French harpsichord art. Couperin's music is distinguished by melodic inventiveness, gracefulness, and perfection of details.

Rameau Jean Philippe (1683-1764)- French composer and music theorist. Using the achievements of French and Italian musical cultures, he significantly modified the style of classic opera, prepared the opera reform of K. V. Gluck. He wrote the lyrical tragedies Hippolytus and Arisia (1733), Castor and Pollux (1737), opera-ballet Gallant India (1735), harpsichord pieces and more. His theoretical works are a significant stage in the development doctrines of harmony .

Gluck Christoph Willibald (1714-1787) famous Franco-German composer. His most glorious activity is associated with the Parisian opera scene, for which he wrote his best works in French words. Therefore, the French consider him a French composer. Numerous operas of his: "Artaserse", "Demofonte", "Fedra" and others were given in Milan, Turin, Venice, Cremoni. Having received an invitation to London, Gluck wrote two operas for the Hay-Market theater: "La Cadutade Giganti" (1746) and "Artamene" and the opera potpourri (pasticcio) "Pyram". This latter had a great influence on Gluck's later activities. All the operas that brought great success to Gluck were written according to the Italian pattern, consisted of a series of arias; in them Gluck did not pay much attention to the text. He composed his opera "Pyram" from fragments of previous operas that had the greatest success, adjusting another text of the new libretto to these fragments. The failure of this opera led Glucan to the idea that only that kind of music can produce the proper impression, which is in direct connection with the text. He began to adhere to this principle in his subsequent works, acquiring a gradually more serious attitude towards recitation, working out the arioso recitative to the smallest detail and not forgetting about recitation even in arias.

The desire for a close connection between text and music is already noticeable in "Semiramide" (1748). But the composer's more tangible turn to opera as a musical drama is noticeable in "Orfeo", "Alceste", "ParideedElena" (1761-64), staged in Vienna. The reformer of Gluck's opera is in "Iphigenie en Aulide", given in Paris with great success (1774). There were also given: "Armide" (1777) and "IphigenieenTauride" (1779) -

Gluck's greatest work The last opera G. was "Echo et Narcisse". In addition to operas, Gluck wrote symphonies, psalms, and more. All operas, interludes and ballets written by Gluck are more than 50.

In conclusion, the one-facedness of French music of the 18th century should be emphasized once again. Musical creativity was like a craft or a light hobby. On the craft, because all the works were of the same type and similar to each other. On a hobby, because many composers were engaged in music simply in their free time, filling their leisure time with such images. Such an occupation cannot be called professional creative creation. Even the most famous French composer of that time, Gluck (who, by the way, was not quite a French composer), is called by ill-wishers the composer of one work. It means Orpheus and Eurydice.

Sources:

Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius,

Encyclopedia of Classical Music,

Brockhaus and Efron,

Classical Music (allowance),

Internet,

Competent musicologist Natalia Bogoslavskaya.

Marseillaise is a French revolutionary song. At first it was called the "Battle Song of the Army of the Rhine", then the "March of the Marseilles" or "La Marseillaise". Under the Third Republic, it became the national anthem of France (since July 14, 1975, it has been performed in a new musical version). In Russia, the "Working Marseillaise" became widespread (the melody "La Marseillaise", text by P. L. Lavrov, published in the newspaper "Vpered" on 1.7.1875).

HARMONY, expressive means of music, based on the combination of tones into consonances and on the connection of consonances in their successive movement. The main type of consonance is the chord. Harmony is built according to certain laws of mode in polyphonic music of any warehouse - homophony, polyphony. The elements of harmony - cadence and modulation - are the most important factors in musical form. The doctrine of harmony is one of the main sections of music theory.

From the middle of the 17th century, the primacy in the development of clavier music passed from the English virginalists to the French harpsichordists. This school for a long time, almost a century, was the most influential in Western Europe. Its ancestor is considered Jacques Chambonière, known as an excellent performer on the organ and harpsichord, a talented teacher and composer.

Concerts of harpsichord music in France usually took place in aristocratic salons and palaces, after light social conversation or dancing. Such an environment did not favor in-depth and serious art. Graceful sophistication, sophistication, lightness, wit were valued in music. At the same time, small-scale plays - miniatures - were preferred. "Nothing long, tiring, too serious"- such was the unwritten law, which was supposed to be guided by the French court composers. It is not surprising that French harpsichordists rarely turned to large forms, variation cycles - they gravitated towards suite, consisting of dance and program miniatures.

The suites of the French harpsichordists, in contrast to the German suites, which consist exclusively of dance numbers, are built more freely. They quite rarely rely on the strict sequence of alemand - courant - sarabande - jig. Their composition can be anything, sometimes unexpected, and most of the plays have a poetic title that reveals the author's intention.

The school of French harpsichordists is represented by the names of L. Marchand, J.F. Dandrier, F. Dazhankura, L.-K. Daquin, Louis Couperin. Most of all, these composers succeeded in gracefully pastoral images (“The Cuckoo” and “The Swallow” by Daken; “Bird's Cry” by Dandrie).

The French harpsichord school reached its peak in the work of two geniuses - Francois Couperin(1668–1733) and his younger contemporary Jean Philippe Rameau (1685–1764).

Contemporaries called François Couperin "François the Great". None of the harpsichordists could compete with him in popularity. He was born into a family of hereditary musicians and spent most of his life in Paris and Versailles as court organist and music teacher to royal children. The composer worked in many genres (with the exception of theatrical). The most valuable part of his creative heritage is 27 harpsichord suites (about 250 pieces in four collections). It was Couperin who established the French type of suite, which differs from German models and consists mainly of program pieces. Among them there are sketches of nature (“Butterflies”, “Bees”, “Reeds”), and genre scenes - pictures of rural life (“Reapers”, “Grape Pickers”, “Knitters”); but especially many musical portraits. These are portraits of secular ladies and simple young girls - nameless (“Beloved”, “The Only One”), or specified in the titles of plays (“Princess Maria”, “Manon”, “Sister Monica”). Often Couperin does not draw a specific face, but a human character (“Hardworking”, “Rezvushka”, “Anemone”, “Touchless”), or even tries to express various national characters (“Spanish Woman”, “French Woman”). Many of Couperin's miniatures are close to popular dances of the time, such as the courante and the minuet.

The favorite form of Cooper's miniatures was rondo.

As already noted, the music of the harpsichordists originated in the aristocratic environment and was intended for it. It harmonized with the spirit of aristocratic culture, hence the external elegance in the design of the thematic material, the abundance of ornaments, representing the most characteristic element of the aristocratic style. The variety of decorations is inseparable from harpsichord works right up to the early Beethoven.

Harpsichord music Ramo peculiar, contrary to the chamber traditions of the genre, a large stroke. He is not prone to fine writing out details. His music is notable for its bright characteristic, it immediately feels the handwriting of a born theatrical composer (“Chicken”, “Savages”, “Cyclops”).

In addition to wonderful harpsichord pieces, Rameau wrote many "lyrical tragedies", as well as the innovative "Treatise on Harmony" (1722), which earned him the reputation of the greatest musical theorist.

The development of Italian clavier music is associated with the name Domenico Scarlatti.

Program works are those works that have a specific plot - a “program”, which is often limited to one heading, but may contain a detailed explanation.

Probably, the appearance of decorations is connected with the imperfection of the harpsichord, the sound of which died out instantly, and the trill or groupetto could partially compensate for this shortcoming, prolonging the sound of the reference sound.

In Western Europe. (especially Italian-Spanish) polygoal. wok. music of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance (motets, madrigals, etc.) as improvisations. element perform. art-va the diminution technique has received great development. She also made one of the texture compositions. the foundations of such ancient instr. genres like prelude, ricercar, toccata, fantasy. Dep. diminutive formulas gradually stood out from the diverse manifestations of free speech, first of all at the conclusion of melodic. constructions (in clauses). Around ser. 15th c. in him. org. tablature appeared the first graphic. badges for writing decorations. K ser. 16th century became widely used - in decomp. variants and connections - mordent, trill, gruppetto, to-rye are still among the main. instr. jewelry. Apparently, they were formed in the practice of instr. performance.

From the 2nd floor. 16th century free O. developed hl. arr. in Italy, especially in a different melodic. the richness of the solo wok. music, as well as in the violinist gravitating towards virtuosity. music. At that time in violin. music has not yet found wide application of vibrato, which gives expression to extended sounds, and the rich ornamentation of the melody served as a substitute for it. Melismatic decorations (ornements, agréments) received special development in the art of the French. lutenists and harpsichordists of the 17th and 18th centuries, for whom there was a characteristic reliance on dance. genres subjected to refined stylization. In the French music there was a close connection instr. agréments with secular wok. lyrics (the so-called airs de cour), which itself was permeated with dance. plastic. English virginalists (late 16th century), prone to song thematics and its variations. development, in the field of O. more gravitated towards the diminution technique. Few are melismatic. the icons used by the virginalists cannot be accurately deciphered. In the Austrian clavier art-ve, which began to develop intensively from the middle. In the 17th century, up to J. S. Bach, inclusive, gravitations towards Italian. diminutional and French. melismatic styles. At the French musicians of the 17th and 18th centuries. it became customary to accompany collections of plays with tables of decorations. The most voluminous table (with 29 varieties of melismas) was prefaced by the harpsichord collection of J. A. d "Anglebert (1689); although tables of this kind show minor discrepancies, they have become a kind of commonly used jewelry catalogs. In particular, in the table prefaced Bach's "Clavier Book for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach" (1720), much borrowed from d'Anglebert.

The departure from free O. towards regulated jewelry among the French. the harpsichordist was enshrined in the orc. music by J. B. Lully. However, the French the regulation of jewelry is not absolutely strict, since even the most detailed table indicates their exact interpretation only for typical applications. Small deviations are allowed, corresponding to the specific features of the muses. fabrics. They depend on the suit and the taste of the performer, and in editions with written transcripts - on the stylistic. knowledge, principles and taste of editors. Similar deviations are inevitable in the performance of the plays of the French luminary. harpsichordism of P. Couperin, who persistently demanded the exact implementation of his rules for deciphering jewelry. Franz. it was also common for harpsichordists to take diminutive ornamentation under the author's control, which they wrote out, in particular, in variations. duplicates.

To con. 17th century, when the French harpsichordists have become trendsetters in their field, such ornaments as trill and grace note, along with melodic. function, they began to perform a new harmonic. function, creating and sharpening dissonance on the downbeat of the bar. J. S. Bach, like D. Scarlatti, usually wrote out discordant decorations in the main. musical text (see, for example, Part II of the Italian Concerto). This allowed I. A. Sheiba to believe that by doing so, Bach deprives his works. "the beauties of harmony", because the composers at that time preferred to write out all the decorations with icons or small notes, so that in graphic. records clearly spoke harmonich. euphony of the main chords.

F. Couperin has a refined French. the harpsichord style reached its peak. In the mature plays of J.F. Rameau, a desire was revealed to go beyond the limits of chamber contemplation, to strengthen the effective dynamics of development, to apply it to music. writing wider decorative strokes, in particular, in the form of background harmonies. figurations. Hence the tendency to a more moderate use of decorations in Rameau, as well as in the later French. harpsichordists, for example. at J. Dufly. However, in the 3rd quarter. 18th century O. has reached a new heyday in production. Associated with sentimentalist trends. A prominent representative of this art. direction in music was made by F. E. Bach, the author of the treatise "The experience of the correct way to play the clavier", in which he paid much attention to the questions of O.

The subsequent high flowering of Viennese classicism, in line with the new aesthetic. ideals, led to a more rigorous and moderate use of O. Nevertheless, she continued to play a prominent role in the work of J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and the young L. Beethoven. Free O. remained in Europe. music premier. in the field of variation, virtuoso conc. cadenzas and wok. coloratura. The latter is reflected in the romantic. fp. music 1st floor. 19th century (in especially original forms by F. Chopin). At the same time, the dissonant sound of melismas gave way to consonant; in particular, the trill began to begin preim. not with auxiliary, but with the main. sound, often with the formation of an out-of-beat. Such a harmonic and rhythmic. softening O. contrasted with the increased dissonance of the chords themselves. The unprecedented development of harmonica became characteristic of romantic composers. figurative background in fp. music with a wide coloristic. the use of pedalization, as well as timbre-colorful figurations. invoices in orc. scores. In the 2nd floor. 19th century O.'s value decreased. In the 20th century the role of free O. increased again in connection with the strengthening of improvisations. began in some areas of music. creativity, for example. in jazz music. There is a huge methodological-theoretical. Literature on the problems of O. It is generated by tireless attempts to maximally clarify the phenomena of O., "resisting" this in their improvisation. nature. Much of what the authors of the works present as strict comprehensive rules for decoding, in fact, turns out to be only partial recommendations.

harpsichord [French] clavecin, from Late Lat. clavicymbalum, from lat. clavis - key (hence the key) and cymbalum - cymbals] - a plucked keyboard musical instrument. Known since the 16th century. (began to be constructed as early as the 14th century), the first information about the harpsichord dates back to 1511; the oldest instrument of Italian work that has survived to this day dates back to 1521.

The harpsichord originated from the psalterium (as a result of reconstruction and the addition of a keyboard mechanism).

Initially, the harpsichord was quadrangular in shape and resembled in appearance a “free” clavichord, in contrast to which it had strings of different lengths (each key corresponded to a special string tuned in a certain tone) and a more complex keyboard mechanism. The strings of the harpsichord were brought into vibration by a pinch with the help of a bird's feather, mounted on a rod - a pusher. When a key was pressed, the pusher, located at its rear end, rose and the feather caught on the string (later, a leather plectrum was used instead of a bird's feather).

The device of the upper part of the pusher: 1 - string, 2 - axis of the release mechanism, 3 - languette (from French languette), 4 - plectrum (tongue), 5 - damper.

The sound of the harpsichord is brilliant, but not melodious (jerky) - which means that it is not amenable to dynamic changes (it is louder, but less expressive than that of), the change in the strength and timbre of the sound does not depend on the nature of the strike on the keys. In order to enhance the sonority of the harpsichord, double, triple and even quadruple strings (for each tone) were used, which were tuned in unison, octave, and sometimes other intervals.

Evolution

From the beginning of the 17th century, metal strings were used instead of gut strings, increasing in length (from treble to bass). The instrument acquired a triangular pterygoid shape with a longitudinal (parallel to the keys) arrangement of strings.

In the 17-18 centuries. to give the harpsichord a dynamically more diverse sound, instruments were made with 2 (sometimes 3) manual keyboards (manuals), which were arranged terraced one above the other (usually the upper manual was tuned an octave higher), as well as register switches for expanding trebles, octave doubling of basses and changes in timbre coloration (lute register, bassoon register, etc.).

The registers were actuated by levers located on the sides of the keyboard, or by buttons located under the keyboard, or by pedals. On some harpsichords, for greater timbre variety, a 3rd keyboard was arranged with some characteristic timbre coloring, more often reminiscent of a lute (the so-called lute keyboard).

Appearance

Outwardly, harpsichords were usually finished very elegantly (the body was decorated with drawings, inlays, carvings). The finish of the instrument was in keeping with the stylish furniture of the Louis XV era. In the 16th and 17th centuries The harpsichords of the Antwerp masters Ruckers stood out for their sound quality and their artistic design.

Harpsichord in different countries

The name "harpsichord" (in France; archichord - in England, kilflugel - in Germany, clavichembalo or abbreviated cembalo - in Italy) was preserved for large wing-shaped instruments with a range of up to 5 octaves. There were also smaller instruments, usually rectangular in shape, with single strings and a range of up to 4 octaves, called: epinet (in France), spinet (in Italy), virginel (in England).

Harpsichord with vertical body - . The harpsichord was used as a solo, chamber-ensemble and orchestral instrument.

The creator of the virtuoso harpsichord style was the Italian composer and harpsichordist D. Scarlatti (he owns numerous works for harpsichord); the founder of the French school of harpsichordists is J. Chambonnière (his Harpsichord Pieces, 2 books, 1670, were popular).

Among the French harpsichordists of the late 17th-18th centuries. -, J.F. Rameau, L. Daken, F. Daidriyo. French harpsichord music is an art of refined taste, refined manners, rationalistically clear, subject to aristocratic etiquette. The delicate and chilly sound of the harpsichord was in harmony with the "good tone" of the chosen society.

The gallant style (rococo) found its vivid embodiment among the French harpsichordists. The favorite themes of harpsichord miniatures (miniature is a characteristic form of rococo art) were female images (“Capturing”, “Flirty”, “Gloomy”, “Shy”, “Sister Monica”, “Florentine” by Couperin), gallant dances (minuet , gavotte, etc.), idyllic pictures of peasant life (“Reapers”, “Grape Pickers” by Couperin), onomatopoeic miniatures (“Chicken”, “Clock”, “Chirping” by Couperin, “Cuckoo” by Daken, etc.). A typical feature of harpsichord music is the abundance of melodic embellishments.

By the end of the 18th century the works of French harpsichordists began to disappear from the repertoire of performers. As a result, the instrument, which had such a long history and such a rich artistic heritage, was forced out of musical practice and replaced by the piano. And not just forced out, but completely forgotten in the 19th century.

This happened as a result of a radical change in aesthetic preferences. Baroque aesthetics, which is based on either a clearly formulated or clearly felt concept of the theory of affects (briefly the very essence: one mood, affect - one sound color), for which the harpsichord was an ideal means of expression, gave way first to the worldview of sentimentalism, then to a stronger direction - Classicism and, finally, Romanticism. In all these styles, on the contrary, the idea of ​​changeability - feelings, images, moods - has become the most attractive and cultivated. And the piano was able to express it. The harpsichord could not do all this in principle - due to the peculiarities of its design.

The traditions of French musical culture began to be laid even before the 15th century. It is known for certain that it was greatly influenced by the cultures of the Germanic and Celtic tribes living in the modern territory of France. The development of music in this country took place in interaction with the creativity of the peoples of neighboring countries - Italians and Germans. That is why the French musical heritage turned out to be so colorful and diverse.

origins

Initially, folk music came to the fore in France, without which ordinary people could not imagine their existence. With the advent of Christianity, church music was born, which gradually began to change under the influence of the people.

The most famous composer of liturgies of that time is called Ilarius from the province of Poitiers. He lived in the 3rd century and was the smartest theologian and teacher of the church.

Around the 10th century, secular music began to gain popularity. It is performed at feudal courts, on the squares of large cities, in monasteries. Among the instruments there are drum, flute, tambourine, lute.

The 12th century was marked by the opening of a music school at Notre Dame, the great Parisian cathedral. Its composers became the creators of new musical genres (conduct, motet).

In the 13th century, the most prominent musician was Adam de la Alle, who rethought the work of the troubadours, giving way to real musical art. His most interesting creation is "The Game of Robin and Marion". He became the author of both poetry and music for this play, which was successfully staged at the court of Count Artois.

Ars nova - the direction of European music, which was developed in France, became the embodiment of new ideas of musicians. The French composers Guillaume de Machaux and Philippe de Vitry became the main theorists of this period. De Vitry wrote the musical accompaniment to the poem "The Romance of Fauvel", de Machaux became the author of the "Mass of Notre Dame". This is the first work written by one composer, and not in collaboration with someone else.

Renaissance

From the middle of the 15th to the second half of the 16th century, French music developed under the influence of the Dutch school and such internal political changes as the war for the unification of France, the establishment of a centralized state, and the emergence of the bourgeoisie.

Under the influence of such composers as Gilles Benchois, Josquin Despres, Orlando di Lasso, a new layer is being formed in the musical art of France. The royal court does not stand aside. Chapels appear there and approve the position of the chief intendant of music. The first was the Italian violinist Baltazarini di Belgioiso.

The heyday of the national musical culture came in the 16th century, when chanson stood out as a genre, organ music acquired a significant role. Jean Titluz became the founder and ideologist of this direction.

The creativity of the Huguenots was widespread, which, due to religious strife, was relegated to the background. French composers, the largest representatives of this layer, Claude Goudimel and Claude Lejeune became the authors of hundreds of psalms. Both of them suffered during the St. Bartholomew's night.

17th century

The music of this century developed under the influence of the established absolute monarchy. Court life under Louis XV was famous for its pomp and abundance. Therefore, it is not surprising that, among other entertainments, such important genres as opera and ballet appeared.

Cardinal Mazarin advocated the development of sophisticated art. His Italian origin was the reason for the popularization of the culture of this country in France. The first attempts to create a national opera belong to Elisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre, who wrote "Kefala and Procris" in 1694.

Opened in 1671, the Royal Opera House presented the country with remarkable composers. Marc-Antoine Charpentier created hundreds of works, including the operas Orpheus's Descent into Hell, Medea, and the Judgment of Paris. Andre Kampra is the author of the opera-ballet "Gallant Europe", "Carnival of Venice", musical tragedies "Iphigenia in Tauris", "Achilles and Deidamia".

The 17th century was the period of the formation of the French school of harpsichordists. Among its participants, Chambonnière and Jean-Henri d'Anglebert can be distinguished.

18 century

Musical and social life in this century is changing dramatically. Concert activity goes beyond the court. From 1725, regular public concerts were held in theaters. The "Amateur Concerts" and "Friends of Apollo" societies were founded in Paris, where amateurs could enjoy the performance of instrumental music.

The harpsichord suite reached its peak in the 1930s. Francois Couperin wrote more than 250 pieces for harpsichord and became famous not only in his native country, but also abroad. He also has royal operas and works for organ to his credit.

For the music of the 18th century, the work of Jean Philippe Rameau, who was not only a talented composer, but also a prominent theorist in his field, is of great importance. His lyrical tragedies Castor and Pollux, Hippolyte and Arisia, ballet-opera The Gallant Indias are also in demand among contemporary directors.

Almost all musical works until the middle of the 18th century were either ecclesiastical or mythological. But the mood in society demanded new interpretations and genres. On this basis, the buff opera gained popularity, which from the satirical side showed high society and royal power. The first librettos for such operas were written by Charles Favard.

French composers of the 18th century had a great influence on the operatic style and the musical-theoretical basis of this genre.

19th century

The Great French Revolution brought about significant changes in musical culture. Military brass music came to the fore. Special schools were opened to train military musicians. The opera was now dominated by patriotic plots with new national heroes.

The Restoration period was marked by the rise of romantic opera. The French composer Berlioz is the most prominent representative of this time. His first program work was the "Fantastic Symphony", reflecting the exaggerated emotionality, typical moods of that time. He became the creator of the dramatic symphony "Romeo and Juliet", the overture "King Lear", the opera "Benvenuto Cellini". In his native country, Hector Berlioz was evaluated ambiguously. This was due to the special creative path that he chose for himself. His works are filled with incredible orchestral effects, which the composer was the first French musician to use.

The middle of the 19th century was marked by the beginning of the development of operetta in the country. But already in the 1870s, lyrical music came to the fore, but with realistic tendencies. Charles Gounod is considered the founder of this genre. His operas - The Unwitting Doctor, Faust, Romeo and Juliet - express all the composer's innovative developments.

Dozens of works significant for French culture were created by Georges Bizet, who lived a short life. He studied at the conservatory from the age of 10 and made great progress from the very beginning. He won several significant music competitions, which allowed the musician to leave for Rome for several years. After his return to Paris, Georges Bizet began working on the opera of his life, Carmen. Its premiere took place in 1875. The public did not accept and did not understand this work. The composer died in the same year, never having seen the triumph of "Carmen".

In the last years of the 19th century, French composers wrote under the influence of German ones, especially Richard Wagner.

20th century

The new century was marked by the spread of impressionism in musical culture. Great French composers became adherents of this style. The brightest was K. Debussy. All the main features inherent in this direction were reflected in his work. The aesthetics of impressionism did not stand aside from another Frenchman. Maurice Ravel in his works mixed different stylistic trends of his time.

The 20th century was the period of creation of creative associations, whose members were artists. The famous "French Six", created under the leadership of Eric Satie and Jean Cocteau, became the most powerful community of composers of that time.

The association got its name because of the analogy with the Russian Union of Composers - the Mighty Handful. They were brought together by the desire to move away from foreign influence (in this case, German) and to develop the national layer of this art.

The association included Louis Duray ("Lyrical Offerings", "Self-Portraits"), Darius Milhaud (opera "Guilty Mother", ballet "Creation of the World"), Arthur Honegger (opera "Judith", ballet "Shota Rustaveli"), Georges Auric ( music for the films "Princess of Cleves", "Roman Holiday"), Francis Poulenc (opera "Dialogues of the Carmelites", cantata "Un ballo in maschera") and Germaine Taillefer (opera "The Little Mermaid", ballet "The Birdseller").

In 1935, another association was born - "Young France". Its participants were Olivier Messiaen (opera "Saint Francis of Assisi"), Andre Jolivet (ballets "Beauty and the Beast", "Ariadne").

Such a new trend as the musical avant-garde appeared after 1950. Its bright representative and inspirer was Pierre Boulez, who studied with Messiaen. In 2010, he entered the top twenty of the best conductors in the world.

The development of contemporary art in France was facilitated by the pioneering work of such pillars of academic music as Debussy and Ravel.

Debussy

Achille-Claude Debussy, born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, from early childhood felt a craving for beauty. Already at the age of 10 he entered the Paris Conservatory. Studying was easy for him, the boy even won a small internal competition. But Claude was burdened by classes in harmony, since the teacher was unfriendly to the boy's experiments with sounds.

Having interrupted his studies, Claude Debussy went on a trip with a landowner from Russia, N. von Meck, as a house pianist. The time spent on Russian soil had a beneficial effect on Claude. He enjoyed the work of Tchaikovsky, Balakirev and other composers.

Returning to Paris, Debussy continued to study at the conservatory and write. He is still developing his own style. The turning point in Claude's life was his acquaintance with E. Satie, who, with his innovative ideas, showed the way for the beginning composer.

Debussy's mature style finally took shape by 1894, when he wrote The Afternoon of a Faun, the famous symphonic prelude.

Ravel

Maurice Ravel was born in the south of France, but moved to Paris at a young age to learn his passion. His teacher was the French composer-pianist Charles de Bériot.

As with Debussy, Maurice was greatly influenced by his meeting with Eric Satie. After her, Ravel began to compose with a vengeance, inspired by the composer's speeches and ideas.

Even while studying at the conservatory, Ravel wrote a number of works on Spanish motifs ("Habanera", "Old Minuet"), which were warmly received by fellow musicians. However, the composer's style once played a cruel joke on him. Ravel was not allowed to participate in the competition for the prestigious Rome Prize, citing age restrictions. But the composer was not yet 30 years old and could, in accordance with the rules, submit his composition. In 1905, because of this, a huge scandal erupted in the music world.

After the First World War, to which Ravel volunteered, the emotional principle was considered the main one in his works. This explains the abrupt transition from writing operas to instrumental compositions (the suite "The Tomb of Couperin"). He also collaborates with Sergei Diaghilev and writes music for the ballet Daphnis and Chloe.

At the same time, the composer begins to work on his most significant work - "Bolero". The music was completed by 1928.

The last work of Maurice Ravel was "Three Songs" written for Fyodor Chaliapin.

Legrand

For the Russian audience, the name of one French composer sounds very familiar. This is Michel Legrand, who created the music for cult films.

Michel Jean was born into the family of a conductor and pianist. From childhood, the boy was fascinated by the art of music, which is why he entered the Paris Conservatory. After completing his studies, he left for the United States, where he began writing music for films.

In France, he worked with renowned directors Jean-Luc Godard and Jacques Demy. His most popular work is the music for the film "The Umbrellas of Cherbourg".

Wrote jazz music. Since the 1960s he has worked in Hollywood. Among the famous works of the composer are the music for "The Thomas Crown Affair", "The Other Side of Midnight". Michel Legrand is a three-time Oscar winner.

21 century

Academic music is still in demand in France. Do not count all the festivals and established awards for achievements in this area. In Paris, which is the cultural center of the country, there are the National Conservatory, Opera Bastille, Opera Garnier, Theater of the Champs Elysees. There are dozens of orchestras known all over the world.

The music of French composers becomes known to the general public thanks to the cinema. Along with operatic and symphonic music, they also write for films. These are mainly works for the French film industry, but some composers also go international. The most successful living French composers of the 21st century are:

1. Antoine Duhamel ("Stolen Kisses", "Graceful Age").
2. Maurice Jarre ("Doctor Zhivago", "Walking in the Clouds").
3. Vladimir Kosma ("Prick with an umbrella", "Dads").
4. Bruno Coulet ("Belphegor-ghost of the Louvre", "Chorists").
5. Louis Aubert (operas "Blue Forest", "Charming Night").
6. Philippe Sarde ("Daughter of D" Artagnan "," Princess de Montpensier ").
7. Eric Serra (soundtracks for Leon, Joan of Arc, The Fifth Element).
8. Gabriel Yared ("The English Patient", "Cold Mountain").