Austria left the empire. Alsace and Lorraine returned to French rule. Czechoslovakia got back the Sudetenland. Statehood was restored in Luxembourg.

Part of the territory of Poland, annexed by the Germans in 1939, returned to its composition. The eastern part of Prussia was divided between the USSR and Poland.

The rest of Germany was divided by the Allies into four zones of occupation, which were controlled by Soviet, British, American and military authorities. The countries that took part in the occupation of German lands agreed to pursue a coordinated policy, the main principles of which were the denazification and demilitarization of the former German Empire.

Education Germany

A few years later, in 1949, on the territory of the American, British and French zones of occupation, the FRG was proclaimed - the Federal Republic of Germany, which became Bonn. Western politicians thus planned to create in this part of Germany a state built on a capitalist model, which could become a springboard for a possible war with the communist regime.

The Americans did a lot for the new bourgeois German. Thanks to this support, Germany quickly began to turn into an economically developed power. In the 1950s, there was even talk of the "German economic miracle."

The country needed cheap labor, the main source of which was Turkey.

How did the German Democratic Republic come into being?

The response to the creation of the FRG was the proclamation of the constitution of another German republic - the GDR. This happened in October 1949, five months after the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany. In this way, the Soviet state decided to resist the intentions of the former allies and create a kind of stronghold of socialism in Western Europe.

The constitution of the German Democratic Republic proclaimed democratic freedoms to its citizens. This document also consolidated the role of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. For a long time, the Soviet Union provided political and economic assistance to the government of the GDR.

However, in terms of industrial growth rates, the GDR, which embarked on the socialist path of development, lagged significantly behind its western neighbor. But this did not prevent East Germany from becoming a developed industrial country, where agriculture also developed intensively. After a series of turbulent democratic transformations in the GDR, German unity was restored; on October 3, 1990, the FRG and the GDR became a state.

Excessive aggressiveness can have a negative impact on all aspects of life. Unrestrained behavior spoils relationships with others, prevents success in a career, negatively affects the atmosphere in the family. Learn to deal with strong emotions.

Instruction

Think about what you do not like in your life in a global sense. Maybe you are unhappy with the way your personal life is shaping up. Then, until you improve relations with a partner, aggressiveness and irritability can be your companions. Perhaps you hate your job. Consider changing jobs or careers. Unresolved issues in important areas of your life can affect both your mood and your character.

Analyze your expectations for other people. Maybe you are too demanding of others, and when people's behavior does not match your concepts, you get angry. Realize that no one owes you anything. Treat the actions and words of others more condescendingly, then there will be no disappointment in them, which results in aggression.

Find a way to express your emotions. Engage in physical activity. Going to the gym or group exercise reduces aggressiveness. Swimming very well relaxes not only the muscles, but also the nervous system. Yoga calms the mind and promotes harmony between body and soul.

Imagine how you look from the outside in those moments when aggression covers you: a crazy look, sudden movements, a red face, hysterical notes in your voice. The portrait is not very attractive. Ask close friends or family to discreetly record you on a video camera during the period when you are furious. Watch the recording later and understand that this is how you look in the eyes of others. Perhaps this experiment will show you how important it is to work on the manifestations of your emotions.

Discuss problems with family members and colleagues as soon as they arise. Do it in a calm environment. Do not be silent if something does not suit you. While you can react to the situation calmly, resolve the issue in an atmosphere of trust and understanding. So you will not bring yourself to a frenzy and save yourself some of the problems.

Use various methods to calm your nerves. Breathing exercises can help you. Practice holding your breath while inhaling or exhaling, alternately closing the right and left nostrils. Breathe deeply and slowly, then often and vigorously. Washing with cold water and slowly counting to 10 helps to recover.

Become more feminine. Perhaps the acceptance of your feminine principle will help you get rid of excessive aggressiveness. Start wearing romantic dresses and skirts, walk in heels. Feel like a real lady who doesn't want to lose her face. Make your movements smoother and your voice softer. Don't forget a friendly smile. Sometimes internal changes come through the transformation of appearance.

Learn to be more accepting of annoying little things. Sometimes they become the last straw and provoke an explosion of negative emotions. Be realistic. Think about whether this or that unfortunate incident will matter to you in a few years.

Everyone wants to be successful in life. This is possible if you see a clear goal in front of you and try to achieve it. Purposefulness is a quality that can be cultivated in oneself.

Instruction

Start cultivating purposefulness in yourself right now, without delay until next Monday. Before the beginning of next week, you will have time to change your mind a thousand times, and you will have to forget about the decision.

Write tasks that take a lot of time on a separate page and divide them into smaller subsections. When setting yourself the goal of learning a foreign language or entering a higher educational institution, plan by what date you must learn grammar, learn

From scratch!
Lesson #2-4-2!

After studying the material in this lesson, you will be able to:

• understand the information in the text
• control yourself by exercising
• memorize some words and phrases

Federal Republic of Germany
Brief geographical outline

The Federal Republic of Germany is located in Central Europe. It borders in the east with Poland, in the south with the Czech Republic, Austria and Switzerland, in the west with France, Luxembourg, Belgium and Holland, in the north with Denmark; the natural boundary in the north is formed by the North Sea (die Nordsee) and the Baltic Sea (die Ostsee). The Federal Republic of Germany covers an area of ​​357,000 km2. Three large zones are distinguished in the landscape of Germany: the Central European Plain in the north, medium-altitude mountains, including the Rhine slate mountains (das Rheinische Schieferergebirge) with separate ridges - Taunus (der Taunus), Hunsrück (der Hunsrück), Eifel (die Eifel) - Black Forest (der Schwarzwald), the Bohemian Forest (der Böhmerwald), the Bavarian Forest (der Bayrische Wald), the Thuringian Forest (der Thüringer Wald), the Ore Mountains (das Erzgebirge) and the Harz (der Harz) in the middle part and the Alpine Plateau (das Alpen-vorland) with the Alps (die Alpen) in the south. The highest mountain is the Zugspitze (die Zugspitze) - 2962 m. Most of the rivers flow into the North Sea: the Rhine (der Rhein) is the largest river in Germany with tributaries Neckar (der Neckar), Main (der Main), Mosel (der Mosel) and Ruhr (die Ruhr), the Elbe (die Elbe) with tributaries of the Saale (die Saale) and the Havel (die Havel) and the tributary of the Havel Spree (die Spree), on which Berlin, the Weser (die Weser) and the Ems (die Ems) are located. Oder (die Oder) with a tributary of the Neisse (die Neiße) - the border with Poland. The Danube (die Donau) flows from west to east, flowing into the Black Sea. The largest lakes are Lake Constance (der Bodensee), located between Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and Müritz (die Müritz) on the Mecklenburg Plateau. The most famous islands are Rügen, Sylt and Norderney. The canal system is highly developed. Germany belongs to countries with a temperate climate. In the northern part, under the influence of the Atlantic, the climate is maritime with moderate heat and mild winters. In the southeast, the climate is more continental with hot summers and cold winters. Characteristic of the weather is the frequent change of warm moist air dry and hot (cold in winter) anticyclone. The average annual temperature is +9°, in January from +1.5° in the north to -6° in the south, in July +17°-20°. Germany has a population of 80 million (including 4.5 million foreigners, mostly foreign workers). About one third of the population lives in cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. The population density of 247 people per km 2 varies in individual areas. The highest population density is in the Ruhr industrial region, in the area of ​​Frankfurt am Main, as well as Stuttgart, Hamburg and Bremen. Cities with more than one million inhabitants include Berlin, Hamburg and Munich.

Germany is a federal state and consists of 16 lands (Länder): Schleswig - Holstein (Schleswig - Holstein), Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania (Mecklenburg - Vorpommern), North Rhine - Westphalia (Nordrhein - Westfalen), Saxony - Anhalt (Sachsen - Anhalt), Brandenburg (Brandenburg), Rhineland - Palatinate (Rheinland - Pfalz), Hesse (Hessen), Thuringia (Thüringen), Saxony (Sachsen), Baden - Württemberg (Baden - Würtemberg), Bavaria (Bayern), as well as three cities on the rights of the lands - Berlin (Berlin), Hamburg (Hamburg) and Bremen (Bremen). 11 lands were part of the Federal Republic of Germany before the unification of Germany, 5 lands were formed on the territory of the former GDR: Mecklenburg - Vorpommern, Saxony - Anhalt, Thuringia, Brandenburg and Saxony. Each land has its own parliament, its own government and autonomously decides a number of political and other issues. The Federal Republic of Germany has a significant reserve of hard and brown coal, potash salts and iron ore; oil reserves are negligible. The Federal Republic of Germany is one of the largest industrial countries and ranks third in the world, after the USA and Japan. The economic system of Germany is a capitalist system of commodity-money relations with a social orientation, the basis of which is free competition. The role of the state is reduced to determining the order of development of the economy, establishing the general framework within which the market economy develops. The question of how much and what kind of goods should be produced and who gets how much of them is decided by the market. The state almost completely refuses direct intervention in questions of pricing and wages.

The main industries are: coal mining, metallurgical, chemical, mechanical engineering, automotive and vehicle manufacturing, electrical and electronic industries, light industry. More than 1 million people are employed in mechanical engineering; it accounts for more than 10% of the total turnover of the entire industry. In terms of car production, Germany ranks third in the world after Japan and America. In 1986, Germany produced 4.3 million cars and 300,000 trucks and buses. Almost 60% of cars are exported. Electrical engineering is one of the leading industries. The field of electronic computing technology plays a key role as an area of ​​investment in industry and all economic development.

Germany is not only a highly developed industrial country, but also has a productive agriculture, covering three-quarters of the country's needs for agricultural products. As a result of structural changes, only 7% of the able-bodied population is now employed in agriculture. The bulk of farms are small farms; about half of all households have 110 hectares of land or less. The main products are: cereals (including fodder), potatoes, sugar beets, vegetables, fruits, grapes. Animal husbandry is widely developed.

(The material is based on the book "Tatsachen über Deutschland".
Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Gütersloh 1989)

LANDS OF GERMANY

1. Answer the following questions on the content of what you have read.

1. What state does Germany border on in the north? 2. Is Bonn one of the cities with more than 1 million inhabitants? 3. What zones are distinguished in the landscape of Germany? 4. What is the administrative division of Germany? 5. Is Germany rich in minerals? 6. What is the highest mountain in Germany? 7. Do all rivers in Germany flow north? 8. What is the climate of Germany?

2. Determine if the following statements are correct (tick if "yes").

Now let's move south to Bavaria. 90 km south of Munich, not far from the border with Austria, is the fabulous village of Oberammergau craftsmen, which has not lost its cultural and historical identity for several centuries. The population of the commune is only 5,000 people, and this figure pales in comparison to the 500,000 tourists who visit these places throughout the year. The main attraction of the village is the Theater of the Passion of Christ, which gathers a large number of spectators for thematic performances.

In the vicinity of the South Bavarian city of Füssen, surrounded by virgin nature, there is Hohenschwangau Castle, which offers stunning views of the German Alps (it is also called the High Swan Castle of the Wittelsbachs). Opposite is Neuschwanstein Castle, fascinating with its graceful beauty, as if hovering over the mountain ranges. It seems that this magnificent structure has descended from the pages of the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm; it reminds the Bavarians of the times of the eccentric King Ludwig II, who ruled the region from 1864-1886.

Want to see the most ambitious project of the Middle Ages? Then welcome to Cologne. On the coast of the Rhine is the most famous landmark of the city - a real masterpiece of Gothic architecture. The cathedral is one of the largest religious buildings; its construction started in 1248. has a magnificent interior, equipped with 56 huge columns. Above the main altar is the golden Tomb of the Three Kings. There is also the Chapel of the Three Kings and the Treasury with a collection of jewels. From the windows of the southern towers there are beautiful views of the surroundings.

An attraction that is interesting not only for adults, but also for children, is located in the center of the port city of Hamburg - this is a model railway, the largest in the world, stretching for as much as 12 kilometers. 890 trains run along this amazing highway, which come in sections dedicated to different countries. In a few hours spent here, you can plunge into the bewitching world of miniature cities, villages, noisy harbors and airports.

One of the country's most popular tourist routes is the German Romantic Road. The ancient city of Rothenburg ob der Tauber or simply is located on it. Just imagine: the city walls and towers have come down to us in their original form since the Thirty Years' War in 1618. Of the most famous buildings of this impeccably preserved medieval city, we can name the majestic City Hall of the XIII century, built in 1466, the church of St. James and the municipal Tavern with its famous clock, the city museum, the fountain built in 1608.

Due to the weakening of the central government, local lords were engaged in maintaining order and repelling the attacks of the Huns and Normans. Subsequently, such duchies as Franconia, Saxony, Swabia and Bavaria arose in the territories under their control. Henry I of Saxony, nicknamed the Fowler, by conquering the neighboring German states, managed to restore the central government, but to a small extent. More “lucky” was his son Otgon. In 936, he proclaimed himself the direct heir of Charlemagne and king of all Germany: a superbly organized ceremony for his coronation took place in Aachen.

The power of the German kings and emperors, however, was not hereditary. The decision on who would be the next head of state was made by a narrow circle - the electors of the largest German cities, including the prince-archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier. One of the brightest rulers was Emperor Frederick I (1152-1190). At the court of this representative of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, poets, minnesingers and valiant medieval knights were held in high esteem. And although the central government was still weak, the state - it was then called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation - lasted until the end of the Middle Ages.

At the end of the 17th century, political leadership in the German lands passed to the rulers of large state formations, among which Prussia stood out noticeably. The model for their kings was the France of the time of Louis XIV, with the idea of ​​centralizing and absolutizing power and strengthening the bureaucracy, including the creation of a strong army on a permanent basis. The autocrats of the new generation became crowded in medieval castles, and they built luxurious baroque palaces for themselves. The construction of these residences and subsequent maintenance cost a lot to ordinary taxpayers. However, from a historical point of view, such sacrifices were not in vain: in our time, these palaces have become the main tourist attractions in Germany, attracting hundreds of thousands of tourists.

Oddly enough, the Great French Revolution of 1789 had a significant impact on the future of the state. In 1794, the German lands west of the Rhine came under the control of the French. Soon, the odious Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte established sovereignty over the whole of Germany. On the one hand, it was enslavement, and on the other hand, it brought positive changes. The French, for example, put the political map of their neighbor in order: Bavaria and Baden became kingdoms, thoroughly expanding their possessions, and petty ecclesiastical states were abolished. At the same time, no one liked foreign domination, and in the spring of 1813, unrest against the invaders began to flare up throughout the country. In October of the same year, on the front line of this struggle, the troops of Prussia, Austria, united to establish control over Schleswig-Holstein, but in the end betrayed their ally. The defeat of the latter's army in the battle with the Prussians in Bohemia ruled out any possibility of the participation of the Austrians in building the future unified German state. Indeed, Prussia led Germany to unification: its king, Wilhelm I, was proclaimed the first all-German emperor (Kaiser).

The attitude towards the unification of the country among the ruling elites of the local monarchies was ambiguous, while the common people were seized with national euphoria. The economy was growing rapidly in the country, industry was developing, railway lines were being laid - it all looked like one big construction site! The first results were not long in coming: in coal mining and steel production, Germany not only caught up, but even surpassed the British Empire. At the same time, electrification and the chemical industry developed. Ordinary people also began to live better, since the government, not in words, but in deeds, dealt with the social problems of the unemployed and people with disabilities.

The relative prosperity within the state contrasted with the state of affairs outside it. By the beginning of the 20th century, relations between major players in the European arena began to come to a standstill. They spent huge amounts of money on their armed forces, which could only indicate one thing - each power was implicitly preparing for war. The formal reason was the assassination in Sarajevo of the Austro-Hungarian Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand in June 1914. Thus began the First World War. Germany, the Habsburg Empire and Italy formed the Triple Alliance. This military-political bloc was opposed by the Entente, which united Russia, Great Britain and France. Germany was preparing a crushing blow to Paris, and when it failed, the country could no longer hope for military success. The situation was further complicated by the fact that the United States of America entered the war. In the summer of 1918, the German military command admitted defeat, but the responsibility for it was placed on the civilian government that advocated peace.

The First World War also had profound domestic political consequences for Berlin. The Kaiser regime fell, it was replaced by the Weimar Republic, forced to accept the extremely unfavorable conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany officially recognized its responsibility for unleashing the war, ceded the Rhine lands, returned Alsace and Lorraine to France, provided Poland with a sea corridor - access to the Baltic, and undertook to pay reparations that were a heavy burden on the country's economy. Not everyone agreed with such a peace, many perceived it as a betrayal of national interests.

Meanwhile, the situation of ordinary people was rapidly deteriorating, hyperinflation ruined millions of Germans. Dissatisfaction with the government grew, and the Nazi party of Adolf Hitler took advantage of this. Hiding behind patriotic slogans, she won an overwhelming majority in the Reichstag in the 1932 elections. President Hindenburg was forced to appoint the leader of this political force as Chancellor. In order to concentrate even more power in their hands, the Nazis organized the burning of the parliament building on the night of February 27, 1933, blaming the communists for it. There is no direct evidence, but historians do not even doubt that this is their work. In the first years of the Nazi rule, the economy began to revive, the military-industrial complex developed especially rapidly. Success awaited Hitler in the foreign policy arena: when he returned the Rhine lands in 1936, the Germans began to slowly get rid of the "Versailles complex." They again began to feel like a full-fledged nation - proud and strong!

Meanwhile, the Fuhrer's appetites were growing, and in general, almost all of Western Europe was under the rule of the Nazis. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria (Anschluss), and in November, as a result of the Munich agreement, the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, populated mainly by Germans. This country itself, with the exception of Slovakia, was transformed into a puppet Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. On September 1, 1939, the Third Reich attacked Poland - thus began the Second World War, the bloodiest in the history of mankind. On June 22, 1941, Wehrmacht troops invaded the territory of the Soviet Union: the Great Patriotic War lasted 1118 days and nights.

However, in this war unleashed by Germany, she was not destined to become the winner. On April 30, 1945, a completely demoralized Hitler committed suicide, and on May 8, 1945, the Nazi regime capitulated to the Allied forces. The red flag of the USSR proudly fluttered over the defeated Reichstag. The country was in ruins, lost some of its territories in favor of its neighbors and was divided into occupation zones - British, American, French and Soviet. The capital of the Reich, Berlin, was divided in a similar way. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in the western occupation zones. In the eastern lands, which were under the control of the USSR, the German Democratic Republic was formed with its capital in East Berlin. West Berlin was not included in any of the newly formed states and was under external control. Relations between the GDR and the FRG remained complex throughout the entire period of their existence.

With the beginning of perestroika in the Soviet Union in 1985, the influence of the “big brother” on East Germany significantly weakened, while the western neighbor, on the contrary, increased. Political and public sentiments in both countries leaned towards the prospect of unification, but no one thought it would happen so soon. In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell - the odious stone border between the divided parts of the city. This event was a turning point that led to the unification of the two parts of Germany already in October 1990. However, many historians consider this not an unification, but an annexation - in fact, absorption - by the Federal Republic of the territory of the GDR. According to experts, the difference in living standards between the "old" parts of Germany is still felt, although almost three decades have passed since reunification.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

(Germany) (Bundesrepublik Deutschland) - state in the Center. Europe. It borders with Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, East Germany and Czechoslovakia; in the north it is washed by the waters of the north. and the Baltic Seas.

Area 248 thousand km 2, us. 59.3 million people (Sept. 1971, est.), almost exclusively Germans. St. 55% believers us. - Protestants, St. 44% are Catholics. The capital is Bonn.

Administratively, Germany is divided into 10 lands: Schleswig-Holstein; Lower Saxony; Sev. Rhine-Westphalia; Rhineland-Palatinate; Hesse; Bavaria; Baden-Württemberg; Saar; Hamburg; Bremen.

According to the 1949 constitution, the head of state is the president, elected for five years by the Federal Assembly, consisting of deputies of the Bundestag and representatives of the lands. Supreme legislator. body - parliament, to-ry consists of 2 chambers: the Bundestag (elected by the population for 4 years) and the Bundesrat (consists of representatives of the lands appointed by the pr-you of the lands). State. coat of arms and flag, see the tables to the articles State coat of arms and State flag.

Historical outline

Germany arose within the boundaries of the occupation. zones of the USA, England and France in Germany. Its creation was prepared by the policy of splitting Germany, to-ruyu app. the powers began to conduct from the first days after the end of World War II, contrary to the decisions taken at the Potsdam Conference of 1945, and other agreed decisions of the participants in the anti-Hitler coalition. Quadripartite decisions of the USSR, USA, England and France on the democratization of Germany and preparations for the formation of a common German. pr-va were disrupted. In adm. apparat the zones of occupation of Germany left a lot of former active Nazis. Decisions on denazification were not carried out here or were carried out formally. Conducted in Zap. In Germany, certain changes in the structure of the monopolies did not ensure genuine decartelization and helped the West German. monopolists to maintain control over industry and finances. By preventing the adoption by the Control Council of a resolution authorizing the unification on an all-German scale of the democratic. parties, occupation power 3 app. powers in every possible way encouraged in their zones the activities of the political. parties and org-tions associated with the monopolistic. capital and speaking from separatist positions. Organization of the Socialist united party of Germany (SED) on the territory. app. Germany was banned. Leadership of S.-d. parties in the West. Germany actually supported the course towards the split of Germany, although it criticized (very, however, inconsistently) certain aspects of the bourgeois policy. parties.

Advanced forces of workers Zap. Germany, led by the Communist party of Germany (KPD) opposed the policy of the occupation. authorities, Western-German. monopolists and their henchmen. However, the split in the working class made it possible for the germ. monopolists to restore their power and implement plans for the split of Germany.

After the Feb. - March and April - June 1948 London meeting of six zap. powers (USA, England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg) registration of a separate zap.-germ. state-va went, in accordance with the plan outlined at the meeting, at an accelerated pace. June 20, 1948 on the territory. Zap. Germany was held a separate den. reform. July 1, 1948 military. the governors of the USA, England and France instructed the prime ministers of the West German. lands to start preparing the convocation of the Constituent. meeting and drafting the constitution of the future Germany. In Aug. In 1948, a special group of experts developed the project Osn. law, to-ry was submitted for discussion by 65 representatives of the West.-German. lands (Parliamentary Council). By May 1949, this assembly drafted a constitution for the West German. state-va, to-heaven was approved by the military. governors of the United States, England and France and entered into force on May 23, 1949. In Aug. 1949 in app. occupation In the zones of Germany, elections were held for the first Bundestag, which met together with the Bundesrat on September 7. in Bonn to elect a president and create a pr-va. Theodor Hayes (one of the founders of the Free Democratic Party) became the first president of the FRG. Federal coalition. pr-in composed of representatives of three parties - Christian Democratic. Union - Christian Social Union (CDU - CSU, founded in 1945), Free Democratic. Party (SDP, founded in 1948) and the German Party (NP, founded in 1946; in 1961 it merged with the All-German Bloc, founded in 1949, to form the All-German Party) - headed by K. Adenauer (CDU).

With the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany, a state-political was created. the basis for strengthening the power of the Germans. monopolies. The largest concerns and banks were revived under new signs (the concerns of Krupp, Thyssen, Haniel, Mannesmann, Klöckner, Hesch, IG Farben; Deutsche Bank, Dresden Bank, Commerzbank (the so-called "Big Three" ) and etc.). The concentration of production and capital in Germany has reached an exceptionally high level.

By 1954, 8 major concerns Zap. Germany owned almost 72% of production. capacities of the entire metallurgical prom. In the hands of 15 monopolistic groups concentrated 82% zap.-germ. coal mining. Monopolies "AEG" and "Siemens" controlled 75% of the main. capital of electrical engineering. prom. In general, 289 of the most powerful shares. companies Zap. Germany at the end of 1953 accounted for 77.8% of the total stock. capital; at the largest enterprises in Germany with the number of employees 500 or more (2.3% of the total number of enterprises), 49.2% of those employed in the industry worked and produced approx. 1/2 prom. country's products.

With the help of Amer. subsidies and loans (the Western occupation zones were included in the Marshall Plan assistance system as early as early 1948) and the mobilization of internal. resources in Germany began a rapid recovery of prom. and s.-x. production, transport and trade. If in 1946 the prom-st app. occupation zones produced less than 1/3 pre-war. volume of production, then to con. 1949 gross industrial volume. the production of Germany approached the level of 1936, and by the end of 1950 it had reached the pre-war level. level. In 1950, the volume of prom. production in Germany increased by 25.8%, in 1951 by 18%. Quick recovery prom. production was ensured through large investments, cutting planks. consumption while forced accumulation. An important factor contributing to the rapid growth of Western German. economy, was the presence of large reserves of highly skilled labor. According to official According to data, unemployment in the FRG in 1949 reached 10.3% of the entire active population, in 1951 - 7.7%, in 1952 - 6.4% (semi-unemployed, employed part-time, are not taken into account). This large army of unemployed, one-third consisted of immigrants from the former East. regions of Germany, served as a huge reserve of cheap labor for the West German. entrepreneurs, when the growing pro-in demanded additional. contingents of workers in the industry and other industries. The general growth of production was also facilitated by the accelerated development of mechanical engineering, instrumentation, electrical engineering, optics, and other industries, which were located predominantly before the split of Germany. in the east of the country. An exceptionally important factor that contributed to the rapid development of the German economy was the practical. the absence in those years of Ph.D. direct military spending. needs. The arms race in the countries, which intensified in connection with the outbreak of the war in Korea, caused an increase in demand for machinery and equipment, gave a new impetus to the development of Western German. economy, and also contributed to its entry into the foreign market. In 1950 alone, the value of FRG exports increased by 120%. Since 1952, exports from Germany began to exceed the volume of imports, and a positive trade balance. the balance has steadily increased. The leading place, as before the war, in the West German. exports were again occupied by heavy industry products. After a certain economic slowdown in growth (1952-53), a new upsurge began in the FRG economy, caused by the expansion of the main. capital, updating the technology of production and supported by special. state. measures to accelerate the development of branches of heavy industry. In 1953-55, the annual growth rate of prom. production was 10-15%. For 1953-56 prom. Germany's production increased by 39%. Rapid expansion of production. capacity was accompanied by certain inflationary phenomena. Under these conditions, the government of Germany took a number of measures aimed at "muting the situation", which led to a certain reduction in the growth rate of prom. production

Nov. 1951 pr-in filed in the federal constitution. court case on the prohibition of the KKE. Jan 31 1952, even before the start of the process, zap.-germ. the police occupied all the premises of the Communist Party and the apartments of its leading workers; documents and materials of the KKE were confiscated. Numerous organizations and associations were subjected to persecution (Free German Youth League, Democratic Women's Union, Kulturbund, Committee of Peace Fighters, etc.). The federal government also took steps to eliminate politically "unreliable" citizens from the state apparatus. In Sept. 1950, it instructed, on the basis of which employees and other employees of the state. institutions were forbidden to support org-tion, advocating peace and the unification of Germany in a peaceful democratic. basis. At the same time, Mr. the apparatus of the FRG was flooded with former active Nazis, career officials, diplomats, officers of the Wehrmacht. Numerous revivals were allowed. right-wing radical parties and organizations such as the German Imperial Party, which openly came out with slogans of revenge and the revival of "greater Germany". These slogans were in fact very close to the political. program of the then federal government. The basis of foreign policy programs Zap.-germ. ruling circles were placed hostile socialist. gos-you anti-communist. course, bet on a close alliance with the West. powers, primarily with the United States, in order to eliminate the first German. work cross. state-va - GDR and revision of the results of the 2nd World War. This program was included as an organic component in the main. political documents and regulations. acts of Germany and zap. powers associated with the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Thus, in a statement by the US State Department dated June 7, 1948, it was said that the recommendations of the London Conference of the Six Powers on the creation of the FRG should "ultimately serve as the basis and starting point for the unification of Germany" around the Bonn Prospect. In accordance with this, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany characterized the Federal Republic as a state of the "transitional period", created on behalf of "all Germans", and provided (Article 23) for the annexation of the remaining parts of Germany. The government of the Federal Republic of Germany made claims for jurisdiction over all Germans (Article 116), regardless of their actual citizenship; it regarded itself as the only germ. pr-in, which is allegedly authorized to speak on behalf of all Germans (statement of the pr-va of the Federal Republic of Germany dated October 21, 1949 and subsequent documents). The federal government officially claimed to expand the territory. Germany to the borders of the former Third Reich, which existed on January 1. 1937. (These claims are contained, for example, in the statement of the Federal Republic of Germany dated November 10, 1965.) Thus, the ruling circles of the Federal Republic of Germany openly put forward claims to the territory. The GDR, as well as the territories that are part of the USSR and Poland, sought to join the Zap. Berlin. The implementation of this program was assisted by the Western powers, which, after the proclamation of the Federal Republic of Germany, retained the meaning. economic and political influence. the life of the country.

In accordance with the "Occupation Statute", promulgated app. powers in Apr. 1949, in Zap. Germany continued to maintain the occupation regime, and the state bodies of the FRG were granted the right to self-government only under the control of the Allied High Commission. From the international legal point of view, the FRG was not fully capable: it did not have its own foreign missions, could not be a member of the c.-l. intl. org-tions, etc. Occupation. the authorities retained the right to interfere in the internal life of the country (up to the abolition of its legislation), to dismantle the "excessive" prom. capacity and control over prom. production (the right to prohibit or restrict shipbuilding, mechanical engineering, chemical industry, limit steel production to 5-6 million tons per year). Soon, however, the occupier the regime was relaxed, and many restrictions and control orders of the three powers were canceled. According to the Petersberg Agreement of November 22. 1949 app. powers refused to dismantle the military-industrial. enterprises of Thyssen, Borsig and other monopolies. New York Foreign Ministerial Conference. cases app. powers in Sept. 1950 decided to lift restrictions for Germany in the field of shipbuilding, navigation, chemistry, and scientific. research. Preparing for the revival of the West.-German. army, the production of Germany received the right to organize large police forces. At the same time app. The powers declared their recognition of the right, misappropriated by the government of the Federal Republic of Germany, to speak on behalf of "the whole of Germany."

Aug 7 1950 Germany became a full member of the European Council in Strasbourg, and on April 18. 1951 - member of the European. coal and steel associations (ECSC). The inclusion of Germany in the closed Europe. economical grouping was a preparatory stage for its entry into the system of aggressive wars. blocks, opened the way to the revival of the army and the reconstruction of the military. prom-sti in Zap. Germany.

The USSR and the GDR, pointing out that such an anti-national course creates serious obstacles in resolving the German. problems and provision of European security, have repeatedly made proposals aimed at implementing decisions on germ. issue adopted by the Potsdam Conference of 1945. Rejecting these proposals, the representatives of the USA, Great Britain, France and the FRG signed in Bonn the "General Treaty" of 1952, which, proclaiming the end of the occupation regime and the sovereignty of the FRG, at the same time contained articles that removed the question of a German peace settlement from the competence of the federal government. At the same time, the Paris Treaty of 1952 was signed on the creation of the "European Defense Community" (EDC), a military bloc of six states that are members of the ECSC.

The conclusion of the "General" and the Paris treaties opened the way for the unlimited remilitarization of the FRG. It caused a wide wave of protests both in West Germany itself and in neighboring countries. On November 2, 1952, the Central Committee of the KKE came up with the Program of the nat. the reunification of Germany, the most important requirement of which is the common action of the West German. democratic and patriotic. forces against the inclusion of the FRG in the system of aggressive wars. blocs and perpetuate the split of Germany, for the negotiations between the GDR and the FRG, the elimination of foreign. bases, the prohibition of revanchist and anti-democratic organizations operating in the FRG. org-tsy, for a peace treaty. In Zap. Germany unfolded a broad movement for bunks. a referendum on the issue of concluding a peace treaty, for the rejection of the Bonn and Paris agreements. Feb. In 1952, 900,000 Bavarian trade union members protested against the participation of the FRG in the "European army".

Bloody clashes between the police and 20 thousand demonstrators who opposed the remilitarization of the country took place in May 1952 in Essen. In the summer of 1952, meetings of protest against the "General Treaty" were held throughout the country. Mass demonstrations took place in Munich, Nuremberg, Darmstadt, and a number of other cities in the FRG. By the end of 1952, 15 million inhabitants of the FRG had spoken out against the "General Treaty" and the militarization of the country. Speeches zap.-germ. workers were closely associated with the struggle to improve their living conditions. In the course of this struggle, the workers succeeded in wresting certain concessions from the entrepreneurs and the pr-va (in particular, in the field of social legislation). The strike movement intensified. Dockers and mountain workers were on strike. transport of Hamburg, the miners and metallurgists of the Ruhr, the workers of the North. Rhine-Westphalia, Hanover, Bremen, Karlsruhe.

On March 19, 1953, the "General" and the Paris Treaties were ratified by the Bundestag, and on May 15, 1953, by the Bundesrat; their ratification was secured by the votes of governments. majority, led by the CDU-CSU. However, due to the refusal of the French National meeting 30 Aug. 1954 to ratify the Treaty of Paris, the system agreed upon in Paris and Bonn was subjected to some revision; Oct 23 the Paris Agreements of 1954 were signed, providing for the entry of the FRG into NATO and Western Europe. Union (February 27, 1955 the agreements were ratified by the Bundestag).

In 1954-55, mass demonstrations against the involvement of the FRG in the Western groupings. powers continued. Trade unions, members of the SPD and communists, representatives of the most diverse social strata, participated in this struggle. 70% of the strikes in Germany in those years took place under the slogan of the struggle against the Paris Agreements. In the autumn of 1954, conferences of a number of branch trade unions, as well as a federal conference of youth trade unions, spoke out against remilitarization in any form. Oct. 1954 The 3rd Congress of the Association of German Trade Unions spoke out against the armament of the FRG and for the peaceful reunification of Germany. The leadership of the SPD also criticized a number of aspects of the political course of the Adenauer government. At a rally in Frankfurt am Main called by the Center. board of the SPD 29 Jan. 1955, the German Manifesto was adopted, in which it was indicated that the entry of the FRG into the military. spare blocks. powers will increase tension in Europe and exclude the possibility of negotiations on the restoration of German unity. Manifesto calling for him. people to fight against such a development of events, was met with approval by the progressive West.-German. the public. However, the Social-Democrats the leaders who opposed the Paris Agreements in the Bundestag ordered, after their ratification, to stop collecting signatures under the German Manifesto and took measures to limit the opposition. speeches.

After the ratification of the Paris Agreements and the entry of the FRG into NATO (May 9, 1955), a rapid revival of the military began. prom-sti, strengthening political., Economic. and military positions of the FRG in Europe, wide expansion in foreign markets, a bet on politics from a position of strength in relations with the Sov. Union and other socialist. gos-you.

Strengthening financial and economic position of Germany, the growth of pro-va in almost all main. industries prom-sti allowed zap.-germ. monopolies to switch to a policy of forced economic. expansion through the export of goods and capital. Since 1955 physical volume zap.-germ. exports increased by an average of 10% annually. In 1963, Germany, which occupied the volume of its industrial. production is already the second place in the capitalist. world after the United States, had a surplus trade. balance in the amount of 6 billion marks. Its gold reserves were inferior among the capitalist. countries only the United States and exceeded 7 billion dollars. As early as March 1961, the FRG government announced an increase in the rate of the mark in relation to the Amer. dollar by 4.75% (new appreciation of the mark was carried out in Oct. 1969). Zap.-germ. capital has significantly strengthened its position in developing countries. From 1957 to 1966, FRG direct investment increased in Lat. America from 514 to 1615 million marks, in Africa - from 93 to 565 million marks, in Asia - from 76 to 314 million marks.

In parallel with the growth of FRG investments abroad, foreign investments increased. investment in the German economy, primarily US investment. In 1967 there were approx. 1200 amer. enterprises; Amer. shareholders controlled 30-40% of production in such industries as electronics, automotive, petrochemistry. Overall, the US accounted for approx. 34% of all foreign investments in the German economy; the United States was followed by the Netherlands (17%), Sweden (16%), England (10%), France (7%) and others.

An important factor in economic growth. power of Germany was the creation in 1957-58 Europe. economical community ("Common Market") and Euratom, which opened up more opportunities for the penetration of Western German. monopolies on the markets of Western Europe. countries and their former colonies. Germany has taken a leading position in these associations. The share of the Federal Republic of Germany in the gross output of the member countries of the Common Market in 1965 accounted for 37.1% (France, 32.6%; Italy, 17.6%); in 1970 the share of Germany in the total volume of prom. The production of the Common Market countries and Great Britain (since 1973 a member of the Common Market) amounted to 34% (the share of France was 24%, Great Britain 22%, Italy 12%, Benelux 8%). The foreign trade turnover of the FRG in 1970 amounted to 64 billion dollars (Great Britain (in dollars) - 41 billion, Benelux - 40 billion, France - 37 billion, Italy - 28 billion).

Based on your economic power, Germany began to seek a dominant position among Europe. US allies. Federal pr-in increasingly began to refer to the alleged discrepancy between the economic. opportunities and politics. the status of Germany. The ruling elite of Germany actively used the idea of ​​"European integration" in order to put economic. and military potential Western-European. countries at the service of the FRG and ensure their support for foreign policy. programs Zap.-germ. monopolies.

In 1955-60, Germany achieved the satisfaction of Western European. state-you a number of their requirements. In Sept. 1956 were clarified in favor of the FRG borders with Belgium, then in July 1959 - with Luxembourg, in April. 1960 - with the Netherlands. According to Franco-West German. agreement dated 27 Oct. 1956 Saar was annexed to Germany as the 10th federal state.

The entry into force of the Paris Agreements opened the way for the creation of a regular army in the FRG. On July 7, 1956, the Bundestag, in spite of the opposition of the SPD, trade union and youth organizations, adopted a law on universal military service. The rapid growth of the Bundeswehr began. In Jan. In 1956, the number of the Bundeswehr was 1000 people, by the end of 1960 - 290.8 thousand people. (including the ground forces - 182.5 thousand, the Air Force - 66.5 thousand, the Navy - 23.8 thousand), at the end of 1966 - 468 thousand people.

The FRG began to play an increasing role in the NATO system. The contingents of the Bundeswehr were DOS. backbone of land armaments. forces of the North Atlantic. pact; using the slogan "full integration" of the Bundeswehr in the armament system. NATO forces, Western-German. generals and officers began to seize key positions in the command instances of this union, in particular in its military. org-tion in Europe.

As its position in NATO strengthened, the FRG increasingly deployed its military. production Already in 1960, more than 200 German companies were engaged in the production of weapons. By 1967 military. prom-st Germany about 65% provided the needs of the Bundeswehr in the military. technique. On the military factories of Germany began to produce tanks of the "Leopard" type, self-propelled anti-tank and art. installations, armored personnel carriers, submarines, destroyers and torpedo boats, anti-tank missiles, art. and small arms. Contributing to the militarization of Germany, zap. the powers began to liberate the Western German. monopolies engaged in the production of weapons, from restrictions that were provided for by the Paris Agreements (for example, in 1958 the FRG received permission to produce anti-tank missiles; in 1959 restrictions on the tonnage of military ships were abolished, in the same year the FRG was allowed to produce short-range missiles).

The rate of remilitarization of the FRG is clearly evidenced by the growth of the military. country spending.

Table Direct military spending of Germany (in billion marks) %%%

The Amer.-West German was constantly expanding. military cooperation. A number of agreements were concluded between the USA and the FRG providing for far-reaching military coordination. policy of both countries as in the field of military. strategy, and in matters of joint development and production of the latest types of weapons. From 1956 to 1964 the FRG spent 14 billion marks on arms purchases from the USA. Under the Hassel-McNamara agreement concluded in 1964, the United States undertook to sell the FRG Amer. weapons in the amount of $675 million a year, as well as to transmit information on the use of atomic weapons. On March 25, 1958, the Bundestag, ignoring the will of broad sections of the West German. population, speeches of trade union organizations, representatives of science and culture of the country, decided to arm the Bundeswehr with nuclear missile weapons. Trying to get nuclear weapons, the government of Germany began to persistently seek the implementation of plans to create a so-called. multilateral or European nuclear forces.

At the same time, in Germany, work began on the creation of scientific and technical. bases of its own nuclear industry (in 1967, 34 nuclear reactors were operating or under construction in the country; large NI. nuclear centers were created in Karlsruhe, Jülich, as well as in the districts of Munich, Hamburg, Frankfurt am Main, Erlangen 7000 scientists, engineers and technicians were employed in the field of nuclear research). Germany's claims to nuclear weapons posed a serious threat to peace and security in Europe.

Economical the expansion of Germany was accompanied by a further increase in the role of state-monopoly. capital in the country. As early as 1958, state-controlled companies owned approx. 18% of total share capital in Germany. Rosli Mrs. military funds; taxes grew, which are in the hands of the state-va the most important affinity for the redistribution of nat. income for the monopolies. In 1960, the total amount of taxes in the FRG amounted to 97 billion marks (37% of the national income). Emerging from ser. 1957 (ch. arr. in connection with the reduction of sales markets) economic. recession (the growth rate of industrial production fell from 5.6% in 1957 to 3.6% in 1958), a reduction in production in a number of industries (coal, metallurgy, shipbuilding), rising prices and taxes contributed to the aggravation of the class . wrestling in Germany. The number of working days lost as a result of strikes rose from 1.1 million in 1955 to more than 2.4 million in 1957. In Feb. - March 1958 long mass strikes took place in Nizh. Saxony, Bremen, Hesse. A broad strike movement engulfed the Ruhr coal industry. 27 Sept. In 1959, 58,000 Ruhr miners marched on Bonn to protest mass layoffs, unemployment, and rising prices. A movement "against atomic death" was launched in the country, caused by the policy of arming the Western German. armies with atomic weapons. Committees for the "struggle against atomic death" were created in many factories, enterprises, cities and communities.

The ruling elite responded to the speeches against its domestic and foreign policy by further restricting the democratic. rights and freedoms of the West.-German. population. Only from 1951 to 1958 was the activity of St. 200 Democratic org-tions and associations. In 1956 the KKE was banned. In 1958, the government of the FRG began to develop "emergency laws" with the aim of ensuring the possibility of establishing, if the government deems it appropriate, a regime of unlimited dictatorship, mobilizing the country's human and material resources, and eliminating the bourgeois-democratic. freedoms and the suppression of workers' protests. At the same time, with the connivance of the pr-va in Germany, there was a further activation of right-wing radical nationalists. groups and orgs, one of the manifestations of which is the creation (November 1964) of the neo-Nazi National Democratic. party, which achieved in 1966-68 the election of its representatives to the Landtags of Hesse and Bavaria, Nizh. Saxony, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, Bremen (as a result of subsequent elections, she lost these mandates).

In the SPD, despite a number of sober speeches, in particular - for the normalization of relations between the FRG and the socialist. countries (VII Congress, July 1956), against equipping the Bundeswehr with atomic weapons, for the creation of a nuclear-free zone in Europe and Europe. Security (VIII Congress, May 1958), for recognizing the existence of two German. states-in and negotiations between them (the so-called "Plan of the SPD on the German Question", March 1959), the line for an alliance with the Christian Democratic Party prevailed. Union - Christian Social Union (CDU / CSU). The approval of this line was accompanied by the ideological evolution of the party towards a final break with Marxism, which found its concentrated expression in the "Principal Program of the SPD", adopted on November 15. 1959 at the extraordinary party congress in Bad Godesberg. In 1955, at the suggestion of the Sov. pr-va were installed diplomatic. relations between Germany and the Soviet Union. Union; however, the true normalization of the state. relations between the two countries was not achieved due to the stubborn unwillingness of the federal government to abandon its policy of non-recognition of the real situation in Europe. In 1955, the production of Adenauer, putting the decision of the most important international. issues depending on the satisfaction of their territories. claims, opposed the proposal of the Sov. pr-va on the creation of a European system. collective security and even rejected his proposal. NATO allies so-called. Eden's plan for the creation in Europe of a zone of limitation of troops and armaments. In 1957, it opposed the proposal of the Minister of Foreign Affairs. cases of A. Rapatsky of Poland on the creation of a nuclear-free zone in the center of Europe, and also obtained from the United States an obligation "not to take any steps in the field of disarmament that could impede the unification of Germany" by absorbing the GDR. Faithful to the policy of forcing international. tension, the Adenauer government also rejected all proposals for the normalization of relations with the GDR. At the same time, the government of the FRG launched an active activity in order to hinder the socialist. construction in the GDR and infringement of its rights to the international. arena. In 1955, it proclaimed the so-called. "Halstein Doctrine" (named after the Western German diplomat and international lawyer, until January 1958 - State Secretary of the German Foreign Ministry), according to which the recognition of the GDR by other states was considered an "unfriendly act" in relation to the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1957, the FRG severed diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia (relations were restored in 1968), and in 1963 with Cuba in response to the recognition of the GDR by these countries. Using the existence of an open border between Zap. Berlin and the GDR, the production of Germany through various economic. and political sabotage caused great damage to the GDR. In response to the ongoing intrigues of the FRG against the GDR and Europe. Security Prospect of the GDR was forced to take measures to protect nat. interests of the Republic and all socialist. commonwealth. Aug 13 1961 on the border between democratic. Berlin and Zap. Berlin established effective control, which seriously made it difficult for the ruling circles of the FRG to use the Zap. Berlin in order to undermine the GDR.

In 1963 Adenauer, the futility of political. course to-rogo became more and more obvious, retired; the federal government was headed by L. Erhard, who, however, did not contribute, c.-l. changes in German policy. From the end of 1965 in the FRG, the symptoms of economic development, which had been indicated as early as 1957, began to be clearly identified. difficulties. If in 1950-55 the gross nat. the average product increased annually by more than 9%, then in 1955-60 - only 6.3%, and in 1960-65 - only 4.8%. In 1966 the economic growth practically stopped, and in 1967 there was a fall in production. Economical difficulties, as well as the failure of Erhard's foreign policy, caused an aggravation of disagreements in the ranks of the government coalition. In October 1966 the Free Democratic Party announced its withdrawal from the government coalition; Erhard's office collapsed.

Dec 1 1966 the production of the so-called. "grand coalition" (CDU / CSU and SPD) led by K. G. Kiesinger. Its creation was an attempt by the West German. monopoly capital to provide a broader and more stable base for the implementation of the old political course.

Foreign Policy the program of the pr-va Kiesinger and his practical. steps soon showed that the real content of political. Germany exchange rate remained unchanged. The Kizinger government made declarations of intent to improve relations with Europe. socialist. countries, counting on the weakening of their cohesion. However, it did not give up its revanchist claims and plans to take over the GDR, still claiming the "right" to speak on behalf of the whole of Germany.

In Sept. In 1969, regular elections to the Bundestag were held, as a result of which the CDU / CSU bloc was removed from power for the first time in the history of Germany. Arrived on Oct. 1969 to replace the production of Kiesinger coalitions. W. Brandt's cabinet (SPD-SDP) proclaimed a policy of "continuity and renewal." It was a question of revising, first of all, those aspects of the West German. politicians, to-rye came into irreconcilable contradiction with the FRG's own interests, did not correspond to its objective position and capabilities in the international. arena, posed a threat to the international. isolation of the country. Feb 28 1969 Brandt's production signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. It accepted the proposal of the Sov. Union for negotiations, to-rye ended on 12 August. 1970 signing of the Soviet Union - the Federal Republic of Germany agreement 1970. The agreement fixed the obligation of the parties to strictly comply with the territory. the integrity of all states in Europe, the inviolability now and in the future of their borders (including the western border of the PPR along the Oder and Neisse, as well as the border between the FRG and the GDR). The Parties have undertaken to resolve their disputes exclusively by peaceful means, to refrain from the threat or use of force, to improve and expand cooperation in various fields, to contribute to the normalization of the situation in Europe and the development of peaceful relations between all Europe. state-you, proceeding from the actual situation existing in this area.

During the talks, the parties came to an understanding on a number of topical issues of strengthening peace in Europe. The government of the FRG declared, in particular, its intention to build its relations with the GDR on the basis of complete equality, non-discrimination, respect for the independence and autonomy of each of the two states in matters relating to their internal affairs. competencies. It expressed its readiness to assist the entry of the GDR and the FRG into the UN and its specialized agencies. An agreement was reached that issues related to the invalidity of the Munich Agreement would be settled between the FRG and Czechoslovakia in a form acceptable to both parties. The USSR and the FRG declared that they would do everything in their power to prepare and successfully hold a conference on strengthening security and developing cooperation in Europe.

Dec 7 In 1970, an agreement was signed between the FRG and Poland (see the Federal Republic of Germany - the Polish People's Republic, the agreement of 1972), the most important provision of which is the recognition of the inviolability of the western border of Poland along the Oder (Odra) and Neisse (Nysa-Luzhitsk).

March 19 in Erfurt and May 21, 1970 in Kassel, negotiations were held between the prev. Council of Ministers of the GDR W. Shtof and German Chancellor Brandt on the normalization of relations between the GDR and the FRG. The ruling circles of the FRG, however, sought to impose on the GDR the concept of a special nature of relations between the two German states, to bypass the question of establishing ties with the GDR on the basis of generally accepted norms and principles of international relations. law, prevented the equal participation of the GDR in the activities of the international. org-tions.

The treaties concluded by the USSR and Poland with the FRG met with wide approval both in the FRG and abroad. The CDU/CSU bloc opposed the treaties, the revanchist wing of which tried to prevent their ratification by using the absence of the coalitions. pr-va solid majority in parliament, as well as economic. difficulties (inflation, rising cost of living, disagreements on budgetary issues). Around the ratification of the concluded treaties, a sharp struggle unfolded, which complicated the internal political. situation in the country. Signed 3 Sept. 1971 agreement pr-in the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France on issues related to Zap. Berlin, that is. contributed to the strengthening of the positions of the supporters of the treaties in the FRG (the agreement notes that the FRG's ties with West Berlin will be maintained and developed, taking into account the fact that West Berlin is still not an integral part of the FRG and will not be controlled by it in the future; on its based on the government of the GDR concluded an agreement with the government of the Federal Republic of Germany and the West Berlin Senate). A significant event in the development of relations between the USSR and the FRG was the September 16-18. 1971 in the Crimea meeting of the gene. Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU L. I. Brezhnev with the Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany W. Brandt, on which important issues of economic, scientific and technical were discussed. and political cooperation between the two states. On May 17, 1972, the Bundestag approved by a majority of votes the agreements between the FRG and the Sov. Union (for - 248, against - 10, abstained - 238) and Poland (for - 248, against - 17, abstained - 230). On May 19, the treaties were approved by the Bundesrat. On May 23, the President of Germany signed a law on the ratification of both treaties. The ratification of the treaties between the USSR and the FRG and between Poland and the FRG was a major success for all forces advocating detente and peace in Europe. In Aug. 1972 representatives of the GDR and the FRG began to prepare an agreement that serves to normalize relations between the two states.

Unfolded in the country acute internal political. wrestling, chap. arr. around the issue of treaties between the FRG and the Soviet Union, Poland and the GDR, in the course of which the parties of the government coalition SPD - SDP lost their majority in the Bundestag, prompted the President of the Federal Republic of Germany to dissolve the Bundestag (September 22) and call early elections. Elections held on 19 Nov. 1972 brought victory to the government coalition over the opposition CDU/CSU bloc: 17.1 million voters (45.8%) voted for the SPD, 3.1 million (8.4%) for the SDP, and 3.1 million (8.4%) for the CDU/CSU bloc. 16.8 million (44.9%). The coalition of the SPD - SDP, having significantly strengthened its position in the elections, again formed a government headed by Chancellor W. Brandt. West German. voters expressed their support for the FRG's course of cooperation with Europe. socialist. countries and détente in Europe. The results of the elections testified to the weakening of the positions of the reactionary forces in the country. Dec 21 1972 in Berlin was signed and entered into force on June 21, 1973, the Treaty on the Foundations of Relations between the GDR and the FRG (see the Federal Republic of Germany - the Polish People's Republic Treaty of 1972), opening the way for cooperation between these states based on the principles of peaceful coexistence.

On June 20, 1973, an agreement was initialed between Czechoslovakia and Germany, which determined the foundations of normal relations between these states.

A milestone in the development of the Soviet-West Germany. relations was the visit of Gen. Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU L. I. Brezhnev in Germany, held from May 18 to May 22, 1973.

The Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR noted: "The visit of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU to the Federal Republic of Germany confirms the turn in relations with the state with which we, in the recent past, stood at opposite poles on almost all major international issues, the turn to new, normal peacetime relations and mutually beneficial cooperation between the Soviet Union and the Federal Republic of Germany" (Pravda, May 25, 1973).

Political parties, trade unions and public organizations. The Christian Democratic Union (CDU) was founded in England. and Amer. occupation zones in 1945; took shape as a single zap.-germ. organization in 1950. 356 thousand members. (without CSU, 1971). Expresses the interests of the Western German. monopolies. Enjoys the support of the church, especially the Catholic. The official body is "Deutschland-Union-Dienst". Christian Social Union (X SS) - main. in 1945. About 110 thousand members. (1971). Operates in Bavaria; adjoins the CDU, forming a single faction with it in the Bundestag, but in the organizational. retains a certain degree of independence. The organ expressing the views of the party leadership is the gas. Bayern Curier. Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) - as a political. the West German Party was founded in May 1946. 847,000 members. (1971). CO - the weekly "Vorwärts". Free Democratic Party (SDP) - osn. in 1948. Approx. 70 thousand members (1971). Party of the big and middle bourgeoisie and wealthy sections of the intelligentsia. CO - "Freie Demokratische Korrespondenz". National Democratic Party (NDP) - main. in 1964. Approx. 20 thousand members (March 1971). Neo-Nazi, revanchist party. CO - "Deutsehe Nachrichten". German Peace Association - osn. in 1960. Approx. 40 thousand members (1970). Expresses the interests of the progressive petty bourgeoisie, some sections of the intelligentsia and the clergy. The Communist Party of Germany (KPD) - as a political party of West Germany took shape in April 1948. In 1956 it was banned and went underground. German Communist Party (GKP) - osn. in 1968. Legal Communist Party of Germany. St. 33 thousand members. (1971). CO - "Unsere Zeit".

Association of German Trade Unions (ONP) - unites 16 trade unions with a total of approx. 7 million members (1971). Included in the ICSP. The Union of German Employees - unites employees mainly of the state. institutions and enterprises. It has 485.5 thousand members. (1970); Union of German Officials - unites state officials. institutions. It has 725 thousand members. (1970). The Federal Circle of German Youth is the largest youth union. Unites 16 org-tions with 4.5 million members. (1971). Union of German Students - c. 300 thousand members (1971).

In Germany, there are several dozens of revanchist unions. The largest of them - the Union of the expelled - osn. in 1958. Approx. 2.5 million members (1966). It unites 23 communities (among them the most numerous is the "Sudet-German community"), 11 land resettlement unions, and other organizations. The German Youth of the East has its own youth organization. The total circulation of newspapers and magazines of the community is approx. 2 million copies per month. There are more than a thousand different soldiers' unions and militaristic organizations in the country, uniting approx. 4 million members (1970). Among them, the most significant: the Union of German Soldiers - main. in Apr. 1950, ca. 60 thousand members (1970), "Steel helmet" - main. in 1918, restored in Germany in 1951, ca. 80 thousand members (1965); Union of former SS soldiers - main. in 1949, ca. 100 thousand members (1970), Bundeswehr Union of Germany - osn. in 1956, on the initiative of the Ministry of Defense of the Federal Republic of Germany, St. 40 thousand members (1970).

Statistical tables %%%

Chronology

The most important events and facts of the history of Germany. Feb. 23, 1948 - June 1 (with a break from March 7 to April 20) - a separate meeting of the USA, England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg in London in Germany. question. Making decisions about the future of the state. device Germany. June 20 - separate den. reform in the German occupation zones. Nov 10 - law of the bisonal administration on the return of the Ruhr enterprises monopolists (under Anglo-American control); 1949, 1 Apr. - publication of the "Occupation Statute" for the Zap. Germany. May 23 - the entry into force of the Basic Law of Germany. Aug 14 - Elections of the first Bundestag. 7 Sept. - Opening of a joint session of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat to elect the President of Germany. 20 Sept. - creation of coalitions. pr-va headed by K. Adenauer. 21 Sept. - entry into force of the "Statute of Occupation". Nov 22 - Petersberg agreement on the termination of the dismantling of the enterprises of the Western German. heavy industry. Dec 15 - the conclusion of the Amer.-West German. agreements on the provision of assistance to the Federal Republic of Germany under the Marshall Plan; 1950, June 13 - official. statement of the Bundestag on the refusal to recognize the border along the Oder - Neisse. Aug 19 - nomination by the Federal Republic of Germany of the requirement to create a zap.-germ. military formations. 12-23 Sept. - New York Foreign Ministerial Conference. affairs of the United States, England and France. Recognition app. powers claims the FRG to "exclusive representation" of the whole of Germany. Dec 18-19 - the adoption by the NATO Council in Brussels of a decision to create a "European army" with the participation of the Western German. troops; 1951 Jan 9 - the beginning of negotiations between Germany and the West. powers to participate in the "defense of Europe". 18 Apr. - the creation of Europe. associations of coal and steel (ECSC) with the participation of Germany. May 2 - the entry of Germany into Europe. advice. July 9 - British declaration to end the state of war with Germany. July 13 - Declaration of France to end the state of war with Germany. 14 Sept. - the decision of the New York meeting of foreign ministers. cases app. powers on the termination of direct occupation control. authorities for internal the life of Germany. Oct 19 - US statement to end the state of war with Germany; 1952, Jan 26 - Ratification of the ECSC treaty by the Bundestag. Feb. - mass action of the trade unions of Bavaria against the participation of the FRG in the "Europe. army". May - clashes in Essen between the police and demonstrators against the remilitarization of Germany. May 26 - signing of the Bonn Treaty "On Relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Three Powers" ("General Treaty"). May 27 - Signing of the Paris Treaty of the Federal Republic of Germany on the establishment of the "European Defense Community" (EDC). Nov 2 - publication of the Central Committee of the KKE Program nat. German reunification; 1953, March 19 - ratification by the Bundestag of the General and Paris Treaties. May 15 - Bundesrat ratification of the General and Paris Treaties. June 3 - renewal by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany of the Treaty of Friendship, Trade and Consular Relations, signed in 1923 by Germany and the USA; 1954, June 17 - the creation of the "Curatorium Indivisible Germany" - a revanchist society. org-tion to conduct subversive work against the GDR. Oct 9 - Resolution of the 3rd Congress of the Association of German. trade unions against arming the FRG, for the peaceful reunification of Germany. Oct 21-23 - conclusion of the Paris Agreements; 1955, Jan 25 - Declaration of the USSR on the termination of the state of war with Germany. Jan 29 - Adoption of the Peace Manifesto at a rally in Frankfurt am Main. Feb 27 - Ratification of the Paris Agreements by the Bundestag. May 5 - the abolition of the "Occupation Statute". May 9 - Germany joins NATO. 8-14 Sept. government negotiations. the delegations of the USSR and the FRG in Moscow; establishment of diplomatic relations. Dec 9 - proclamation of the "Halstein Doctrine"; 1956, July 7 - the adoption by the Bundestag of the law on universal military service. Aug 17 - prohibition of CHRG; 1957, March 25 - the signing by the government of Germany of agreements on the creation of Europe. economical community ("Common Market") and Euratom. Oct 19 - break diplomatic. relations between Germany and Yugoslavia; 1958, Jan 1 - the entry into force of the agreements on the establishment of the "Common Market" and Euratom. Feb. - March - strikes in Nizh. Saxony, Bremen, Hesse. March 25 - decision of the Bundestag on arming the Bundeswehr with nuclear missiles. 25 Apr. - signing the auction. agreements between the USSR and Germany. June 14 - creation of a permanent presidium of the Congress of Opponents of Atomic Weapons in Gelsenkirchen; 1959, July 5 - the inclusion of the entire Saar region. into the Federal Republic of Germany. 27 Sept. - march to Bonn ca. 60,000 Ruhr miners protesting mass layoffs, unemployment and rising prices. Nov 15 - Adoption by the Extraordinary Congress of the SPD in Bad Godesberg of a new party program; 1960, Sept. - break bargaining. agreements with the GDR. Dec 31 - signing of the Soviet-West German. bargain. agreements; 1961, March 6 - revaluation of the West German. stamps by 4.75%. 15 Apr. - the merger of the German Party (founded in 1946) and the All-German Bloc (founded in 1949) into the All-German Party. 17 Sept. - elections to the Bundestag of the 4th convocation. Loss of CDU/CSU absolute majority in parliament; 1962, on the night of 27 Oct. - Arrest of the editors of the magazine "Der Spiegel" on charges of disclosing secret wars. information. Governments. a crisis; military retirement. min. F. Strauss. Dec 18 - commissioning of the first nuclear reactor of Germany in Karlsruhe; 1963, Jan 14 - gap pr-vom FRG diplomatic. relations with Cuba. Jan 22 - friendship treaty between Germany and France. March 7 - an agreement on trade between the FRG and Poland and the opening of a trade mission of the FRG in Warsaw; 1964, June 5 - ratification by the Bundestag Mosk. atomic weapons test ban treaty in three areas. Oct 10 - L. Erhard's statement about the readiness of the Federal Republic of Germany to create nuclear forces jointly with the United States, if the project of the Intern. nuclear forces will not find the support of other NATO members. Nov 2 - A statement by the leadership of the SPD on support for emergency legislation and projects for the creation of the International. nuclear forces; 1965, May 7 - I Congress of the NDP in Hannover. May 13 - the establishment of relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and Israel, after which the Arab countries broke off diplomatic relations. relations with Germany; 1966 Feb. - May - exchange of open letters between the Central Committee of the SED and the board of the SPD on issues of cooperation between the two Germans. labor parties. March 21 - 23 - Election of Erhard to the post of chairman of the CDU. 1 Apr. - approval by the Bundestag of the first three emergency laws; Jan 31, 1967 - Communiqué of Germany - Socialist. Republic of Romania on the establishment of a diplomatic relations. March 10 - approval by the government of the draft constitution in the event of a state of emergency. Oct 20 - adoption of five draft laws in the event of a state of emergency; 1968, Jan 31 - restoration of diplomacy. relations with Yugoslavia. May 30 - Bundestag approval after the 3rd reading of the emergency legislation. June 17 - decision of the government to extend for an indefinite period the law "on assistance to West. Berlin"; 1969, 28 Sept. - elections to the Bundestag. Oct 29 - Revaluation of the West.-German. stamps by 9.29%. Nov 15 - a note from the Federal Republic of Germany to the USSR with a proposal to start negotiations in Moscow "on the renunciation of the use of force." Nov 25 - Appeal of the FRG government to the NDP government with a proposal to hold talks on bilateral relations. Nov 28 - signing by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany in Moscow, London and Washington of an agreement on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons; 1970, Jan 22 - A letter from German Chancellor W. Brandt to Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the GDR W. Shtof with a proposal to hold talks at the government level "on the exchange of statements on the non-use of force." Feb 5 - the beginning of governments. negotiations between Germany and Poland in Warsaw. March 4 - the signing by the governments of Germany, Great Britain and the Netherlands of an agreement on the joint production of enriched uranium using a gas centrifuge. March 19 - meeting V. Shtof and W. Brandt in Erfurt. May 21 - meeting of W. Shtof and W. Brandt in Kassel. Aug 12 - Signing in Moscow of an agreement between the USSR and Germany. 17 Sept. - the founding meeting of the "Parliament in the event of a state of emergency" consisting of 22 deputies of the Bundestag and 11 representatives of the Bundesrat. Dec 7 - Signing in Warsaw of an agreement between the FRG and Poland; Feb 25, 1971 - the beginning of negotiations between the delegations of the USSR and the FRG on the issue of concluding a long-term agreement on trade and economic. cooperation. 15 Apr. - Completion of negotiations between the USSR and the FRG on the issues of consular activities, the establishment of the Consulate General of the USSR in Hamburg and the Consulate General of the Federal Republic of Germany - in Leningrad. 3 Sept. - agreement pr-in the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France on issues related to Zap. Berlin. 16-18 Sept. - meeting Gen. Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee L. I. Brezhnev with the Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany W. Brandt in the Crimea. Dec 13 - submission of treaties between the FRG and the USSR and Poland for consideration by the Bundestag. Dec 17 - an agreement on transit traffic between Germany and Zap. Berlin; 1972, May 17 - approval by the Bundestag of the treaties of the FRG with the Sov. Union and Poland. May 19 - Bundesrat approves agreements between the FRG and the Sov. Union and Poland. May 23 - signing by the President of the Federal Republic of Germany of the law on the ratification of treaties between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Soviet Union. Union and Poland. Nov 19 - early elections to the Bundestag. Victory of the SPD-SDP coalition. Dec 21 - signing of an agreement on the fundamentals of relations between the GDR and the FRG; 1973, May 18 - 22 - visit to Germany Gen. Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU L. I. Brezhnev. June 20 - initialing of the treaty between Czechoslovakia and the Federal Republic of Germany. June 21 - the entry into force of the treaty between the GDR and the FRG, signed on December 21, 1972.

Government of Germany. 1949, 20 Sept. -1953 Oct. - K. Adenauer (CDU / CSU, SDP, German Party (NP)); 1953, 20 Oct. - 1957, Oct. - K. Adenauer (CDU / CSU, NP, SDP; Union of Settlers); 1957, Oct.-1961, Nov.-K. Adenauer (CDU/CSU, NP); 1961, 14 Nov. - 1963, 15 Oct. - K. Adenauer (CDU/CSU and SDP); 1963, 17 Oct. - 1966, Oct. - L. Erhard (CDU/CSU and SDP); 1966, 1 Dec. - 1969, 28 Oct. - K. G. Kiesinger (CDU / CSU and SPD); since 1969, 28 Oct. - W. Brandt (SPD - SDP).

German Presidents. 1949, 12 Sept. - 1959, July 1 - T. Hayes; 1959, July 1 - 1969, June 1 - G. Lubke; from July 1, 1969 - G. Heineman.

The most important scientific institutions of Germany studying history; organs of historical periodicals (given in square brackets at each institution, as well as at the end of the list)

Scientific institutions, historical societies. The most important centers for the study of history in Germany are Bonn, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Göttingen, Cologne, Marburg, Münster, Munich, Freiburg, Frankfurt and Erlangen Universities. The study of history is also conducted in a number of other higher educational institutions. institutions (total at higher educational institutions approx. 300 institutions).

Union of Historians (Verband der Historiker) in Cologne - founded in 1893 ("Bericht über die 1. Versammlung deutscher Historiker in München"); History Teachers' Union (Verband der Geschichtslehrer) in Detmold - founded in 1913 ("Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht", since 1950, monthly); German Society for Foreign Policy and Institute of Inst. (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Auswärtige Politik und Forschungsinstitut...) in Bonn - main. in 1955 ("Europa-Archiv", since 1946, 2 times a month); Association of German ist. and archeol. societies (Gesamtverein der Deutschen Geschichts- und Altertumsvereine) in Marburg - osn. in 1852 ("Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte" - since 1852, annually); Institute of European history (Institut für Europäische Geschichte) in Mainz - osn. in 1950 ("Veröffentlichungen..." - from 1952); Institute of Modern History (Institut für Zeitgeschichte) in Munich - osn. in 1950 ("Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte" - from 1953); About them. Ranke (Ranke-Gesellschaft. Vereinigung für Geschichte im öffentlichen Leben) in Hamburg - main. in 1950 ("Das Historisch-Politische Buch" - since 1953, monthly); About them. August Bebel for the study of scientific. socialism (August Bebel-Gesellschaft zum Studium des wissenschaftlichen Sozialismus) in Frankfurt - main. in 1963 ("Marxistische Blätter" - from 1963, two months); Commission on the history of parliamentarism and political. parties (Kommission für Geschichte des Parlamentarismus und der politischen Parteien) in Bonn - main. in 1951 ("Beiträge zur Geschichte des Parlamentarismus..." - from 1952); German Institute for the Study of the Middle Ages (Deutsches Institut für Erforschung des Mittelalters - Monumenta Germaniae Historica) in Munich - main. in 1819 ("Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters" - in 1937-44 and since 1950, annually).

Historians studying non-European countries unite: German African Society (Deutsche Afrika-Gesellschaft) in Bonn - main. in 1956 ("Afrika heute" - since 1957, annually); German Society for the Study of America (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Amerikastudien) in Marburg - osn. in 1953 ("Mitteilungsblatt..." - since 1954, annually); Institute for Asian Studies (Institut für Asienkunde) in Hamburg - osn. in 1957 ("Schriften..." - from 1957). See also information about scientific institutions under the articles Slavonic Studies, "Ostforschung".

Research and publications in the field of history in Germany are also engaged in ist. commissions at the Bavarian, Heidelberg, Göttingen, Rhenish-Westphalian academies of sciences and the Academy of Sciences and Literature in Mainz.

Archives: Federal Archives (Bundesarchiv) in Koblenz - osn. in 1952. Its branches are the military archive in Freiburg and the foreign policy archive in Frankfurt am Main. Land archives: Bavaria - in Munich (the main land archive; from the 13th century), Hamburg (from 1437), Bamberg (from 1803), Würzburg (from 1764), Coburg (from 1939), Landshut (from 1753), Neuburg ( from 1830), Nuremberg (from 1806); Baden-Württemberg - in Stuttgart (from the 15th century), Karlsruhe (general state archive, from 1803), Sigmaringen (from 1865), Ludwigsburg (from 1868); Hesse - in Wiesbaden (the main land archive), Darmstadt (since 1567), Marburg (since 1502); Lower Saxony - in Aurich, Wolfenbüttel (since the 16th century), Oldenburg, Osnabrück, Stade; Rhineland-Palatinate - in Koblenz (since 1832), Speyer (since 1817); North Rhine-Westphalia - in Düsseldorf (chief state archive), Detmold (since 1957); Münster (since 1829); Saar region - in Saarbrücken; Schleswig-Holstein - in Schleswig; Bremen, Hamburg (since 1267).

Libraries: German library (Deutsche Bibliothek) in Frankfurt am Main - main. in 1946, publ. Deutsche Bibliographie; State. library of the Prussian Cultural Society (Staatsbibliothek der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz) in Berlin and Marburg - main. in 1661; Bavarian State library (Bayerische Staatsbibliothek) in Munich - main. in 1558; Library of Modern History - World War Book Depository (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte - Weltkriegsbücherei) in Stuttgart - main. in 1915; Library of the Bundestag (Bibliothek des Bundestages) in Bonn, etc.

Museums: Hamburg Museum of Ethnography and Primitive History (Hamburgisches Museum für Völkerkunde und Vorgeschichte) - main. in 1878; Museum of Hamburg History (Museum für Hamburgische Geschichte) - osn. in 1839; Historical Museum in Hannover (Historisches Museum am Hohen Ufer) - osn. in 1903; Museum of Art and Cultural History (Museum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte) in Dortmund - osn. in 1883; Neandertal Museum (Neandertal-Museum) in Düsseldorf; Roman-Germanic Museum (Römisch-Germanisches Museum) in Cologne; Roman-German center. museum (Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum) in Mainz - osn. in 1852; Bavarian national museum (Bayerisches Nationalmuseum) in Munich - osn. in 1855; German National Museum (Germanisches Nationalmuseum) in Nuremberg - osn. in 1852; East Museum (Historisches Museum) in Frankfurt am Main - osn. in 1878; East Museum of the Palatinate (Historisches Museum der Pfalz) in Speyer - osn. in 1869, etc.

Organs of historical periodicals: "Außenpolitik. Zeitschrift für Internationale Fragen", Stuttgart, 1950-; "Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte", Bonn, 1952-; "Archiv für Kulturgeschichte", Koln, 1910-; "Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik", Köln, 1952-; "Byzantinische Zeitschrift", Münch., 1892-; "Gnomon. Kritische Zeitschrift für die gesamte klassische Altertumswissenschaft", Münch., 1925-; "Historia" - Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1952-; "Historische Zeitschrift", Münch., 1859-; "Neue politische Literatur", Fr./M., 1956-; "Saeculum. Jahrbuch für Universalgeschichte", Freiburg, 1950-; "Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie", Fr./M., 1953-; "Zeitschrift für Deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur", Wiesbaden, 1871-; "Zeitschrift für Religionsund Geistesgeschichte", Köln, 1949-, etc.

Sources and literature for the article

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D. , Das Deutsche Dilemma, Münch., 1971; Beyme K. von, Die politische Elité in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Münch., 1971; Europas Zukunft. Europas Alternativen, Opladen, 1969; Außenpolitik nach der Wahl des 6. Bundestages, Opladen, 1969 . Art Encyclopedia

Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland). I. General information Germany is a state in Central Europe. It borders on the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark. Washed by Sev. by the sea… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia

For modern Germany, see Germany. Federal Republic of Germany Bundesrepublik Deutschland ... Wikipedia

- (Germany) (Bundesrepublik Deutschland) state in the Center. Europe, created in Sept. 1949 as a result of the separate activities of the Western powers; It included English, Amer. and French zone of occupation in Germany. The first stamps dedicated to the creation of ... ... The Big Philatelic Dictionary is a state in Western Europe, formed on October 3, 1990 as a result of the unification of the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic and West Berlin, which was an independent political unit with a special ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Constitutional Law

Germany, Federal Republic of Germany- State structure Legal system General characteristics Civil and related branches of law Criminal law Criminal procedure Judicial system. Bodies of control Literature State in Central Europe. Territory 357 thousand square meters. km ... Legal systems of the countries of the world. Encyclopedic reference

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• Regional studies. Federal Republic of Germany. Textbook for academic baccalaureate, O.F. Rodin. The textbook provides complete and objective information about modern Germany. It gives a picture of the state structure of Germany, its socio-political system, economy, ...

Germany

Regional information
Official name: Federal Republic of Germany
Country area: 357 thousand sq. km
Population: 82.258 million people
Political system: parliamentary republic. The head of state is the federal president, who is elected by the Federal Assembly. The head of government is the Federal Chancellor. The highest body of legislative power and the body of popular representation is the German Bundestag, elected by the people for 4 years. The head of the supreme body of legislative power is the President of the Bundestag.
Capital: Berlin with a population of about 3.4 million people
National holidays: January 1 (New Year), Catholic Good Friday (Good Friday), Catholic Easter, Catholic Easter Monday - according to the church calendar, May 1 (Labor Day), Catholic Pentecost (Day of the Holy Spirit) - according to the church calendar, October 3 (Unity Day Germany), December 6 (Catholic Day of St. Nicholas), December 25 (Catholic Christmas), December 26 (St. Stephen's Day).
Administrative division: In administrative-territorial terms, Germany consists of 16 states: Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Lower Saxony, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saar, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, North Rhine- Westphalia, Thuringia and Schleswig-Holstein. Federal lands are not provinces, but states with their own Constitution, which meets the principles of a republican, democratic, legal and social state and authorities.
Borders: In the north it borders with Denmark, in the east with Poland and the Czech Republic,
in the south - with Austria and Switzerland, in the west - with France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. In the north it is washed by the North and Baltic seas.
Main rivers: The main river is the Rhine, among the numerous tributaries of which are the Main, Ruhr,
Moselle, Neckar, Lahn. The other two rivers are the Danube in the south of the country and the Elbe with a tributary of the Neisse in the eastern part of Germany. Among the lakes, the largest is Lake Constance, partly located in Austria and Switzerland.
Climate: Germany has a temperate maritime climate. In the center of the country the climate is more continental than in the north - winters are colder and summers are warmer. Snow lasts the longest in the mountains - over 100 days in the Alps and on the peaks of the Black Forest.
The average temperature in January on the plains is from -4°С to -2°С, in the Alps - up to -5°С, in July on the plains from 16°С to 20°С, in the highlands up to 14°С. In summer, temperatures rise southward, with the highest levels occurring in the Upper Rhine Lowland. The average July temperature there is 19°C, and the average July temperature in Berlin is 18.5°C.
Official language: German, English and French are used in communication with foreigners.
Currency: Euro (EURO). Banknotes: 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 euros. Coins: 2 and 1 euro; 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 cents.
Religion: Protestants (mostly Lutherans) - 36%, Catholics - 35%, Muslims - 2%, Jews. About 31% of the German population, mostly in the former GDR, are atheists.

Excursion into history
Between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, as a result of the Great Migration of Nations, the Germanic tribes, called barbarians by the Romans, spread throughout Europe and mixed with the Celts. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Franks played the most significant role among the Germanic tribes. In the period of the 6th-9th centuries, they formed a huge Frankish kingdom on the territory of Europe, which included most of Western Europe. In 843, after the collapse of this state, the East Frankish kingdom arose on its territory, in the future - the kingdom of Germany. In the 10th century, the unofficial name of the East Frankish kingdom appeared - "Reich of the Germans" (Regnum Teutonicorum), which after several centuries became generally recognized, its German version - Reich der Deutschen. The next East Frankish king was in 936 the Duke of Saxony Otto I (in the Russian historical tradition he is called Otto). In 962, Otto I was crowned in Rome as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, which at that time consisted of Germany and part of Italy. The whole history of Germany is, in essence, the history of the Holy Roman Empire. This political institution, which lasted until 1806, retained a single form and the same political claims. Despite the strength of its state structure, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of many almost independent states and cities, united by the idea of ​​the dominion of Eternal Rome as the center and head of Western Christendom. In 1701, among the many lands within the Empire, the Brandenburg-Prussian state stood out, called the "Kingdom of Prussia" and distinguished by a rigid bureaucratic system and militarism. The Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist in 1806, during the era of the Napoleonic Wars, when the Confederation of the Rhine was proclaimed in its place. Despite economic prosperity, the Confederation of the Rhine soon ceased to exist: following the results of the Congress of Vienna on June 8, 1815, it was replaced by the German Confederation, which included (at the initial stage of its existence) 41 states under the leadership of Austria. Nevertheless, this formation turned out to be fragile and could not resist the eternal idea of ​​imperial unity and greatness, which became the engine of German history. This time, it was the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck, who received the nickname Iron Chancellor for his tough character. An economically strong Prussia united most of the North German states around itself. The Austro-Prussian-Italian war initiated by Bismarck led to the collapse of the German Confederation and the formation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871, which also included the South German states. However, the period of prosperity and prosperity was replaced by an era of catastrophes and misfortunes. As a result of the First World War, Germany lost all its colonies and was obliged to pay huge reparations, famine and epidemics raged in the country, and terrible inflation reigned. The First World War turned out to be only a prelude to those terrible events that followed it and entered the chronicle of world history as one of its most tragic stages. The Second World War led to fundamental changes in the world order, as well as a global rethinking of human values. Among the most tragic consequences of the Second World War for Germany was its redistribution between the countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition. As a result of this redistribution, there appeared: in the west - the Trizone of Germany, or West Germany, which in 1949 received the name of the Federal Republic of Germany, in the east - the Soviet zone of Germany, or East Germany, which in the same year was called the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Bonn became the capital of Germany. As for Berlin, starting from 1945, it was divided between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition into four occupation zones. The eastern zone, occupied by Soviet troops, later became the capital of the German Democratic Republic. In the three western zones, control was exercised, respectively, by the occupying authorities of the United States, Great Britain and France. After the formation of the FRG and the GDR, both states declared their claims to sovereignty over West Berlin. With the conclusion of the quadripartite agreement on September 3, 1971, the ratio of the FRG - West Berlin - GDR was put on a new legal basis. The occupation regime remained in West Berlin. The absence of a clear physical border in Berlin led to frequent conflicts and a massive drain of specialists, in connection with which the GDR authorities initiated the construction of a guarded wall that physically separated West Berlin from the GDR. The process of merging the FRG and the GDR into a single state took place spontaneously and was accompanied by a number of political upheavals in the ruling circles of both parts. In early November 1989, a grandiose demonstration took place in Berlin, which ended with the destruction of the Berlin Wall. This symbolic event was one of the first steps towards the unification of the two German states. Soon, the German mark of the FRG came into circulation on the territory of the GDR, and in August 1990, an agreement on the establishment of unity was signed between the two parties.

Art and tradition
Germany is a country of great culture, with a rich tradition and a great many outstanding personalities. For many people, the art of Germany is associated primarily with music.
Germany has one of the richest musical traditions in the world. Even those who are not interested in classical music know the names of Bach, Handel, Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms, Wagner… Every year the country hosts a great many major festivals and other musical events that always cause a wide public outcry. The Wagner Festival held every summer in Bayroth has a rich history, and festivals dedicated to Beethoven (in Bonn) and Mozart (Würzburg) are popular. Germany is home to many world-class orchestras, including: the Berlin Philharmonic, the Bamberg Symphony, the Munich Philharmonic, and the Gewandhaus Leipzig. The musical tradition is indeed an important part of German life. Here, in many families it is customary to give children a musical education, there are a huge number of specialized institutions in the country, various competitions are held to identify young talents.
Germany is also known as a major literary power. This is evidenced by the fact that the International Book Fair, which takes place every autumn in Frankfurt, is the main center of attraction for the entire publishing world. The passion for reading among the Germans has not disappeared, despite the Internet and television. Here, with equal interest, they read both classics such as Goethe, Schiller or Lessing, as well as outstanding authors of the 20th century - Günter Grass, Lion Feuchtwanger, Erich Maria Remarque, Hermann Hesse ... The art of the word in Germany is still at a very high level today. Among the writers of our time, the names of Uwe Thiem, F.K. Delius, Ralf Rothmann, who declared themselves even before the 90s, should be noted.
Traditionally, Germany is considered a country of poets and thinkers. Notable German philosophers include Leibniz, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Schopenhauer, and Heidegger, but the key figure in German philosophy is undoubtedly Friedrich Nietzsche.
Many great names know the fine arts of Germany. At different times, such masters as Albrecht Dürer, Caspar David Friedrich, Lucas Cranach the Elder created European art history.

National cuisine
If you try to characterize German cuisine in a few adjectives, then the definitions are best suited to it: simple, tasty, satisfying and ... varied. Residents of Germany are not inclined to calculate calories, preferring rather heavy and satisfying dishes to light and low-calorie dishes.
All kinds of meat products are very popular in German cuisine - various kinds of sausages, sausages, as well as the world-famous white Bavarian sausages (Weisswurst). These products can be used as part of main courses (for example, the world-famous dish of sausages with stewed sauerkraut, called Sauerkraut), as well as for preparing snacks and various soups. Among the latter, especially noteworthy are potato soup with sausages, pea soup with sausage, and the popular Berlin Eintopf (Eintopf), a thick, rich soup that replaces a whole meal.
The list of the most savory dishes of German cuisine is headed by Hackepeter, raw minced meat with salt, pepper, egg and spices (it is also called "tar-tar"). This stuffing is often used as a paste, spreading on bread.
Other popular meat dishes include: chops and schnitzels, meatballs (Klops), boiled pork knuckle (Eisbein), brisket with ribs (Rippchen), black pudding with raisins, Hamburger fillet,
Dishes from various vegetables are widely represented in German cuisine - cauliflower, green beans, carrots, red cabbage ... They are consumed here in large quantities, especially boiled as a side dish. Traditionally, the Germans are considered lovers of potatoes, which are called the second bread here and are used in a variety of dishes.
The Germans love sweet and starchy dishes, which is why all kinds of desserts are so widely represented in the national cuisine of Germany. The signature German dessert is, of course, apple strudel, which is simply delicious here. No less tasty are pies and cakes with a variety of fillings - cherry and pear, plum or cottage cheese, with chocolate, nuts, cream and whipped cream ... Also popular among sweet dishes are fruit salads made from finely chopped fruits, which are sprinkled with powdered sugar and poured over with fruit sauces or syrups, jellies, mousses, all kinds of casseroles with fruit sauces, ice cream… You should definitely try Pfunnkuchen – Berlin-style pancakes with marmalade inside. Germans prefer natural coffee to tea, mostly with milk.
Like many other European countries, Germany has regional peculiarities. So, for example, in the northern coastal lands, fish and other seafood dishes play a leading role. To the east along the coast, more and more varieties of fruits and berries appear on the table. Among the local culinary masterpieces stand out more than others: apples with beans, plums with dumplings, goose with prunes, black pudding with raisins.
And, of course, in all regions of the country they equally love beer and always drink it, with or without reason. The tradition of brewing originated in Germany a very long time ago, at all times the foamy drink was one of the symbols of the country. When traveling in Germany, you should definitely try the wines of different regions. Each of its varieties has a unique bouquet of smells and tastes. Rhine wines are especially popular. In addition to beer and wine, schnapps (Schnaps) is drunk a lot and with pleasure in Germany. So here they call almost any fruit alcohol with a strength of 35 to 40 degrees, made without any artificial additives based on a variety of fruits and berries. Schnapps in Germany is consumed both in pure form and in cocktails.