Analysis of musical works. Theoretical foundations and technology for the analysis of musical works. Analysis of a piece of music Holistic analysis of a piece of music examples

Greetings dear readers! There have already been enough articles on our site devoted to certain patterns of music construction, a lot of words have been said about harmony, how chords are built, about chord inversions. However, all this knowledge should not be "dead weight" and should be confirmed in practice. Perhaps some of you have already tried to compose something of your own using modulations, and so on. Today let's try to see how many of the "components" we have already described in separate chapters interact all together. We will do this using the example of the analysis of a polyphonic work, which can be found in the music notebook of Anna Magdalena Bach (the wife of the great composer). Anna Magdalena had a good voice, but did not know musical notation at all, so the great composer wrote something like training material especially for her.

By the way, for those who have just started learning to play the piano, you can try to play the pieces from this very notebook, they are very well suited for starting to master the skill of sight reading. So, let's start analyzing the work. In this case, by musical analysis, I will mean finding chords that explain Bach's use of certain notes in the conduct of a melody. Of course, for a polyphonic work, chords (or harmony) are not particularly needed, since two lines develop in parallel in it, but still I was interested in understanding how the laws that we have already written about in practice work. What are these laws?

1 How the functions work - tonic, subdominant, dominant (you can read about this in the article, and also about modulation there);

2 Why chords of dominant and subdominant functions can be taken not only from the "standard" 4th and 5th steps of the scale, but from several (the answer to this is given in the article).

3 Application of invocations T, S, D (this is more about the piano, we also have on this topic);

4 Making modulation to another key.

All of the above ways to diversify harmony are used in Bach's "Menuet BWV Ahn. 114". Let's take a look at it:

rice. one

In the first article, we will select the chords for the first part of the work before ... So, after analyzing the first measure of our work, we see that it consists of the notes G, B and D. This consonance is the G major chord (G), it is the tonic, that is, it determines the tone in which the whole work will be. After the G chord in the same measure, there is a movement into the dominant, or rather into its circulation D43, we are "telled" about this by the presence of notes A and C at the end of the 1st measure, if they are completed, then we get the consonance A-do-d-fa sharp or reversal of the usual dominant from the fifth degree (or D7 chord), the rest of the notes are passing. In the second measure, the inversion of the first chord - T6, is suitable, we made such a conclusion because the measure begins with the interval si - re and then there is a salt, that is, the sound composition is fully consistent with this appeal. In the third bar, the first do-mi interval is the notes to the major triad, only without the note G, in this case, C major plays the role of a subdominant. Then a stepwise movement to reverse the tonic - T6 in the 4th measure (it is the same as the second measure). The 5th bar starts with A-C - which is not a full A-minor or subdominant chord from the second degree for the key of G.

rice. 2

As you can see in Figure 2, the subdominant from the second step is indicated by adding the Roman numeral 2 to the letter S.

We analyze the piece of music further... the 6-bar begins with the harmonic interval Sol-si, which, you guessed it, is part of our tonic or G chord, therefore we take it here. Then, through a progressive downward movement, we come to the dominant in the 7th measure, this is evidenced by the presence of the D-fa consonance, if completed, we get a D-seven chord or a dominant from the 5th degree of the G-major key. After the D7 dominant in the same measure, we again take the tonic T53 (G), since again we see a harmonic sol-si (harmonic, by the way, means that the notes of the interval are taken simultaneously, and not one after another). The eighth bar contains notes of D (si there as passing), they are also sounds from the D7 chord, while the rest of the notes that make it up (F sharp, C) are simply not used here. The ninth measure is almost the same as the first, although the interval on its strong beat (si-re consonance) is the inversion of the tonic, and not the tonic proper as in the first measure, so we take the T6 chord, everything else is the same. The 10th measure contains on the first beat the note G-D - again the "unfinished" chord T53 or G.

rice. 3

Figure 3 shows the chords analyzed above.

Moving on... Bar 11 starts with C, which, as we said, is part of a C major chord, and that means again a subdominant from the fourth step of S53. The twelfth measure contains the sounds of B-sol (they are on the first beat) this is T6 or the inversion of our tonic. In the 13th bar, you need to pay attention again to the first consonance - the notes A and C - this is again an A-minor or Subdominant chord from the second step. It is followed (in measure 14) by the T53 or tonic, as determined by the G-C notes (the first two notes of the G major triad). The 15th measure implies the reversal of the subdominant from the second step (or Am), that is, in the bass it becomes not "la" but "do", and "la" is transferred up an octave. The consonance will be called a sixth chord, in fact we have sounds do-la on the first beat - that is, the extreme sounds of this appeal. Well, the 16th bar completes the first part of the work and marks its end with a return to the tonic, and the sound composition also confirms this (gl note).

rice. four

This concludes the first part of our analysis. In the pictures you see the exact designations of what is played in the minuet (T, S, D - and the numbers next to them - their inversions), and at the very top in black - the chords to which they correspond. You can try to play them on the guitar, which will be easier - because there is not such a variety of invocations, but of course there are also some nuances. Even in this first part, you learned how to analyze a piece of music, and if you are not fond of classical music, you can still use the approach that we have demonstrated for the analysis of any other composition, because the essence is the same.

1. Period structure: a). square - 8 cycles (small), 16 tons (large); b). not square - 7t, 10, 17; in). re- or non-re-building.

2. Structures organizing the period: a). summation, splitting, a pair of periodicities, etc.; b). due to which the expansion of the structure occurs: due to the expansion - the emergence of additional measures before the cadence; due to the addition - "extra" bars appear after the cadence.

3. The nature of the music in the proposed fragment: harmony, tempo, strokes necessarily participate in the creation of character - all this must be indicated.

4. Melody type:a). vocal ( cantilena - the melody of "wide breathing", flowing without interruption by pauses; recitation -"speech melody" with many nuances: pauses, short leagues; recitative -"dry", nondescript melody with a small sound volume, almost at the same height); b).instrumental (wide leaps, complex passages and strokes).

5. Texture (the nature of the interaction of the melody and accompaniment): a). monodic - fundamental monophony, characteristic of Gregorian chant and znamenny chant; b). heterophonic - multi-layered monophony (the leading melody is set out in several voices - see Mussorgsky, Borodin's romances, Rachmaninov's piano works; in). homophonic-harmonic or homophonic - a clear division of texture into melody and accompaniment - most of the classical and romantic music of the 18-20 centuries); G). polyphonic - the presence of several leading melodies; e). mixed - the presence in one work or its fragment of several textural principles at the same time, for example, homophonic and polyphonic - see. Chopin, Polonaise No. 1, middle section (“dialogue” of voices).

6. Type of figures in the invoice: a). chordal; b). harmonic - to the sounds of harmonic revolutions; in). Albertian basses- most often present in the classical music of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and their foreign and Russian contemporaries - this is a simplified harmonic figuration; G). melodic - figuration in its complexity resembles a melody or even surpasses it - see Rachmaninov's musical moment No. 4, works by Liszt F,

7. Features of the harmonic structure of the period: a). write a diagram indicating deviations and modulations, if any; b). to identify the defining feature of the harmonic structure of the period - for example, its harmonies are simple or, on the contrary, complex, authentic or plagal phrases are mainly used.

8. Genre origins of the period: a). chorale - a slow or moderate pace of movement, a strict chord texture, a declamatory or cantilena melody; b). aria - cantilena melody, vocal graces, homophonic texture; in). vocal piece - a cantilena or declamatory melody that can be sung; G). instrumental work- fundamentally not a vocal melody: wide jumps, a large number of oncoming signs, chromatisms and other technical difficulties. e). march - even meter, moderate or moderately fast pace of movement, chordal texture, "angular" melody based on movement along the sounds of the main harmonic functions; e). dance - mobile tempo, texture of bass-two chords, instrumental type of melodies.

9. Metro - rhythmic features of this fragment: characteristic rhythmic pattern ( rhythmic formula): march -, polonaise -, waltz -; features of violation of regular accent (syncopes, crushing of a strong beat), variable meter or size - why was this done by the composer?

10. Style features of the composer or era: Baroque - polyphonic texture, the use of rhetorical figures, features of ancient dances - allemands, chimes, sarabandes. gigi, gavotte or toccata genre; preclassicism - homophonic texture, but somewhat angular, "awkward" development techniques based on repetitions of a melodic fragment at different heights; classicism - homophonic texture, Albertian basses, a clear harmonic scheme with obligatory cadences, a characteristic instrumental melody, figures of game logic; romanticism - mixed type of texture, several leading melodies (most often related to each other by the principle of dialogue), complex harmonic comparisons affecting tonalities of the 2nd and 3rd degree of kinship, detailed nuances of dynamics and strokes; XX century - the use of various techniques of the 20th century: serial technique, alleatorics, complex melody with counter signs, texts.

Artistic result: what happened in the synthesis of all means of musical expression, what is the composer's artistic intention in this fragment of the work?

An example of classical period analysis:

The structure period proposed as an analysis is a small non-square period (10 cycles) of repeated structure with an extension in the second sentence. The first sentence organizes the structure of a pair of periodicities, in the second sentence an element of game repetition appears (the “stuck tone” figure), due to which the period structure expands. The melody of this musical period is of a pronounced instrumental type, as indicated by wide leaps, virtuoso passages, reliance on the sounds of the main triads. The effect of a “stuck tone” that occurs in the second sentence creates a moment of dialogue, a dispute, which suggests that this period belongs to the era of classicism, since it is in the work of the Viennese classics and Russian composers of the 18th century that elements of instrumental theater are often used.

The belonging of this period to the named epoch can also be substantiated by verified harmonic relations with a clear organization of cadences, the use of a simple deviation in the key of the first degree of kinship, the advantage of authentic phrases. The interrupted phrase at the end of the second sentence (where the expansion of the structure occurs) is also an expected and typical element at this place in the structure of the period of classical works. Harmonic circuit this snippet looks like this:

The diagram clearly shows uniform harmonic pulsation(i.e., two functions per measure throughout the entire period). Appearing in the second sentence, the ascending diatonic sequence creates a tonal movement and prerequisites for development. This technique is also often found in classical music.

Invoice decision this period is sustained in homophonic-harmonic texture with a clear division of voices into the leader and accompanying. The harmonic figuration is presented in the form of Albertian basses, which creates a single and integral tempo of movement.

Metro Rhythm Organization period maintains a uniform harmonic ripple (four quarters). The harmonic figuration outlined in eighth notes creates a solid foundation for the mobile rhythmic organization of the melody, which includes movement in sixteenth notes and syncopations. The characteristic rhythmic pattern of this period conveys liveliness and splashing energy - a short dotted line and 4 sixteenths.

Summarizing the observations made during the analysis and taking into account the sufficient melodic simplicity and modesty in the invention of developing techniques, we can assume that this musical fragment is borrowed from the instrumental music of J. Haydn, which is part of a sonata or symphony.

Such melodies are typical, for example, for the vocal genre scenes of Dargomyzhsky and Mussorgsky, and are typical of the music of the 20th century.

According to the typology of V.Konen.

(Toolkit)

Nizhny Novgorod - 2012

Introduction …………………………………………………………………3

Metrorhythm ……………………………………………………………....5

Melodika ………………………………………………………………..11

Harmony………………………………………………………………...15

Warehouse and invoice………………………………………………………....17

Tempo, timbre, dynamics ………………………………………………...20

Period …………………………………………………………………..24

Simple forms ………………………………………………………...28

Complex forms ………………………………………………………..33

Variations ………………………………………………………………..37

Rondo and rondo-shaped forms…………………………………….....43

Sonata form ………………………………………………………...49

Varieties of sonata form …………………………………………54

Rondo Sonata ………………………………………………………...……..57

Cyclic forms …………………………………………………….59

References ………………………………………………………..68

Test tasks………………………………………………………..70

Questions for the test and exam…………………………………………..73

Introduction

Perhaps only art distinguishes a person from the world of wildlife. Human (verbal) language differs only in its verbal form, but not in its function (means of communication, communication). In most mammals, as in humans, "language" has a sound and intonation basis.

Different sense organs transmit different amounts of information about the world around us. The visible is much more, but the audible affects much more actively.

In physical reality, TIME and SPACE are inseparable coordinates, while in art, one of these sides can often be artistically accentuated: SPATIAL in fine arts and architecture or TIME in verbal art and music.

TIME has opposite qualities - fusion (continuity, continuity) is combined with dismemberment (discreteness). All temporal processes, whether in life or in art, unfold in stages, phases that have different stages of unfolding THE BEGINNING. CONTINUATION. END, as a rule, repeatedly repeated, increasing in duration.

Music has a procedural deployment and its stages (BEGINNING, CONTINUED, END) are usually denoted by the initial letters of Latin words (initio, movere, temporum) - I M T.

In all processes, their deployment is controlled by opposite forces, the ratio of which can have THREE options: EQUILIBRIUM (stable or mobile, dynamic), and two options for PREDOMINATION of one of the forces.

The names of the forces and their manifestations in different processes are not the same.

Deployment of music is controlled by two formative forces CENTRIFUGAL (CB) and CENTRIPEAL (CS), which are in stage I in dynamic balance (mobile, unstable, changeable) in stage M - activation of CENTRIFUGAL force (CB) pushes back the action of CENTRIFUGAL (CS), in stage T the CENTRIPETAL force (CF) is activated, pushing the CENTRIFUGAL force aside.

CENTRIFUGAL force manifests itself in music as CHANGE, RENEWAL, continuation of movement and evokes associations with INSTABILITY in the broad sense of the word. CENTRIPEAL FORCE SAVE, REPEAT what has been said, stops movement and is associated with STABILITY in the broadest sense of the word. These forces act, as a rule, in many layers and at different times in all means of musical expression. The action of form-building forces is most clearly felt in HARMONY, since stability and instability are manifested in it in a concentrated and diverse way.

All types of DEVELOPMENT (movement in time) are connected with the action of form-building forces. Due to the properties of time (fusion and dismemberment), there is always a comparison of the SUBSEQUENT with the PREVIOUS.

Types of development form a SPECTRAL series (without rigid boundaries between different types), the extreme points of which reveal the predominance of one of the formative forces, EXACT REPETITION - the action of the CENTRIPEAL force, CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT (maximum update, presentation of a NEW TOPIC) of the CENTRIFUGAL force. Between them are types of development based on the flexible interaction of BOTH FORCES. This development is OPTIONAL and OPTIONAL-CONTINUING.

REPETITION (exact) VARIANT VARIANT-CONTINUED CONTINUED.

The range of changes in variant development is very wide. Therefore, private varieties are formed within the variant development. more specific in terms of change parameters. IN VARIATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, changes DO NOT AFFECT THE HARMONIC BASIS and EXTENSION of the alteredly repeated. IN DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT, VARIANTS sound in conditions of harmonic or tonal-harmonic INSTABILITY and, often, structural fragmentation. Only developmental development has semantic certainty, creating a feeling of growing tension and excitement.

As a rule, two LEVELS of development are distinguished: INTERNATIONAL - within the presentation of a polyphonic theme or homophonic (within the homophonic period), and THEMATIC (outside the presentation of the theme).

Intra-thematic development can be any (not regulated). Few musical forms have a strong connection with one kind of thematic development or another. Only the verse song relies mainly on the EXACT REPETITION of the verse music, and all types of variations fit into the framework of VARIANT development. The forms mentioned above are among the most ancient in origin. Other musical forms are varied in thematic development. One can only note a rather stable TREND towards CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT in CYCLIC and COMPLEX FORMS - in the ratio of parts of cycles and large sections of complex forms.

METRORYTHM

Rhythm is associated with all time relationships in music: from adjacent durations to the ratio of parts of cyclic works and acts of musical and theatrical works.

METER - THE BASIS OF RHYTHM - has two sides: time-measuring (creating a feeling of pulsation, beats, even counting of time) and accent, uniting these beats around pivot points, enlarging the units of musical time flow.

Music means. expressiveness have a variety of possibilities for creating accentuation: in RHYTHM, a larger DURATION emphasizes, in MELODY, accentuation is created with the help of jumps or with any change in pitch after it remains unchanged, in HARMONY, accentuation is achieved by changing harmony, resolving dissonance and, especially, the presence of DELAY, accent properties are very diverse DYNAMICS (letter and graphic). Both TEXTURE and timbre have various accent properties, and in music with text, grammatical and semantic accents of the text are added. Thus, through the accent side, the metrorhythm unites and permeates all the means of muses. Expressiveness is like the circulatory and nervous system of the human body.

The type of correlation between the time-measuring and accent sides gives rise to two types of metro-rhythmic organization: STRICT and FREE, which have different expressive possibilities.

The criterion for their difference is the DEGREE OF REGULARITY of time-measuring and accent.

A STRICT METER has a multi-layered regular time measurement and a fairly regular accent. Music in strict meter evokes associations with organized differentiated action, movement, process, dance, rhymed verse and has a positive psycho-physiological effect on living organisms.

In the FREE METER, the time measurement is not layered and often unstable and the accent is irregular, as a result of which such a metro-rhythmic organization of music evokes associations with a monologue, improvisation, free verse (non-rhyming verse) or a prose statement.

Despite all the differences, both metrorhythmic types are like. As a rule, they interact with each other, which gives the flow of music a lively, non-mechanistic character.

Numerical ratios in meter also have different expressive prerequisites: BINARY (divided by 2) is characterized by clarity, simplicity and regularity. TERNARITY (divided by 3) - greater smoothness, undulation, freedom.

In the tactometric system of music recording, SIZE is a NUMERICAL EXPRESSION OF METER, where the lower number indicates the BASIC TIME-MEASURING UNIT, and the upper one indicates the ACCENT SIDE.

The influence of the meter extends "DEEP" (when pulsing with durations smaller than indicated in the size, an INTERLOBAL METER, even or odd, is formed) and "BROAD", FORMED FROM SEVERAL WHOLE BEAMS UNITED BY A POWERFUL, COMPLEX ACCENT. This is possible due to the accent possibilities of expressive means. The more expressive means involved in creating an accent, the “wider” its formative action, the more prolonged the musical construction it unites around itself. METER OF THE HIGHER ORDER (combining several whole measures) enlarges the flow of music, has great formative significance. Usually, higher order meter can come and go quite freely, and is more typical of movement music or measured lyrical music. Combining an even number of measures (2-4) occurs noticeably more often than an odd number, which is less common, more episodic.

The arrangement of accented and non-accented moments coincides with the three main TYPES OF STOPS: CHOREIC FEET have ACCENT BEGINNING, IAMBIC FEET have ACCENT END, in AMPHIBRACHIC FEET ACCENT IN THE MIDDLE. The expressive premises of the two types of feet are quite definite: IAMBIC are distinguished by measured striving, completeness; AMPHIBRACHIC - smooth undulation, lyricism in the broadest sense of the word. CHOREIC FEET are found in music of a very different nature: and in energetic, imperative themes: and. In lyrical music, associated with the intonation of a sigh, drooping, weak-willed intonations.

In connection with the various accent possibilities of expressive means, in music, as a rule, a multi-layered intricately woven network of accentuation of different intensity, weight, develops. Only a specific, accent musical content can make its share. Therefore, in music, in addition to the above-mentioned metric levels: INTRA-LEVEL, BLOCK, and METER OF THE HIGHER ORDER, CROSS METER is often manifested, which does not coincide with either the BLOCK or METER OF THE HIGHER ORDER. It can capture the entire musical fabric, or part of it (line, layer), giving the movement of music greater freedom and flexibility.

In music of a homophonic-harmonic warehouse, the tendency of the background layers of texture to regular metric time measurement, often multi-layered, choreic, is often clearly manifested, while as a MELODY, as a rule, it is distinguished by greater rhythmic variability and freedom. This is undoubtedly a manifestation of the interaction between STRICT and FREE METER.

The perception of a specific metric level, or a combination of several levels, depends on the rhythm in the narrow sense of the word (certain DURATIONS) in relation to the bar line. The ratio of rhythm and meter is formed in THREE VARIANTS.

NEUTRALITY of meter and rhythm means rhythmic uniformity (all durations are the same, rhythmic accents are absent). Accents are created by OTHER EXPRESSIVE MEANS. In this regard, manifestations of a BLOCK METER, a HIGHEST ORDER METER or CROSS METER are possible (examples: Bach's little prelude in D minor, Chopin's 1 etude).

THE ASSISTANCE OF METER AND RHYTHM (a) - the first beat IS ENHANCED, b) the subsequent beats are SHREDDED, c) both TOGETHER) most clearly reveals the BLOCK METER, and sometimes the METER OF THE HIGHER ORDER, ALONG WITH THE BLOCK.

THE OPPOSITION OF METER AND RHYTHM (the first beat is DIVIDED; the subsequent beats are GROWLED; THAT AND THE OTHER TOGETHER) reveals CROSS METER, and also, often, METER OF THE HIGHER ORDER.

Of the phenomena that complicate the temporal organization of music, the most common is POLYRHYTHMY - a combination of DIFFERENT INTERLOBAL METERS

(two or more). Giving the movement of rhythmic lines detail, differentiation. Widespread in classical music, POLYRHYTHMY reaches considerable complexity and sophistication in the music of CHOPIN and SCRIABIN.

A more complex phenomenon is POLYMETRY - a combination of DIFFERENT METERS (sizes) in different layers of the musical fabric. POLYMETRY can be DECLARED

Thus, the declared polymetry first appears in Mozart's opera Don Giovanni, where in the ball scene in the score of the opera orchestra and the orchestra on the stage, DIFFERENT SIZES are displayed. Declared polymetry is often found in the music of composers of the twentieth century, Stravinsky, Bartok, Tishchenko, for example. However, much more often, polymetry is unannounced, short-lived (the beginning of the second part of Beethoven's 2nd sonata, the second section of The Harvest, fragments of Christmas time from Tchaikovsky's The Seasons, for example).

POLYMETRY creates a feeling of considerable versatility, complexity, often tension.

The formative role of the metrorhythm is not limited to the higher order meter. Interacting with thematism, it continues in SYNTAX STRUCTURES (similar to poetic ones), covering SIGNIFICANT MUSICAL CONSTRUCTIONS WITH SIMPLE AND CLEAR RHYTHMIC RELATIONS.

The simplest structure is PERIODICITY, similar to rhythmic EQUALITY. Periodicity can be single and long-term. Always creates a sense of calmness. orderliness. consistency. Some “monotonicity” of long periodicity, in folk and professional music, is diversified by inventive melodic structures (periodicity with a change in one or another construction, a couple of periodicities, alternating periodicity) and variant changes that do not affect the length of the constructions. On the basis of periodicity, other structures also arise. SUMMATION (double-tact, two-tact, four-tact) creates a feeling of growth, ascent of the output. CRUSHING (two-cycle, one-cycle, one-cycle) - clarifications, detailing, development. The structure of CRUSHING WITH CLOSURE (two-cycle, two-cycle, one-cycle, one-cycle, two-cycle) is distinguished by the greatest variety and completeness.

Both SUMMATION, and CRUSHING, and CRUSHING WITH CLOSING can be repeated (the PERIODICITY of CRUSHING WITH CLOSURE is formed, for example), the alternation of two structures can also be repeated (the entire first section of Tchaikovsky's Barcarolle is united by the periodicity of alternating crushing and crushing with a closure).

REPEATING (BY THE SIGN OF REPRIZE) is a widespread phenomenon in instrumental music, starting from the Baroque era, which forms the largest periodicities that streamline the flow of the musical form with simple rhythmic relationships and organize perception.

MELODIC

MELODY is the most complex, complex, free means of musical expression, often identified with music itself. Indeed, the essential properties of music are present in the melody - intonational concentration and the temporal nature of deployment.

Conditionally digressing from the timbre-dynamic side and RHYTHM, which has a huge and expressive and formative significance in the melody, it has two more sides of its own, possessing independent expressive possibilities, HAVING THEIR OWN NATURAL TRENDS. The MODAL side determines its character, and the MELODIC DRAWING (“linear” side) determines its content-plastic appearance.

The formation of the fret side was a historically extended and nationally individualized process. The most widely used in European music are the seven-step frets of two moods - major and minor.

A huge number of options for combining different steps increases many times due to the processes of intratonal alteration and modulation chromatism. The regularity is the following: THE MORE STABLE STAGES, THE MORE DIRECTLY (that is, immediately) THE UNSTABLE ARE ALLOWED IN THEM - THE MORE CLEAR AND DETERMINATE THE CHARACTER OF THE MELODY, THE LESS STABLE SOUNDS, THAN MEDIATELY AND NEEDED TO BE ALLOWED HARDER CHARACTER OF THE MUSIC.

The role of the MELODIC DRAWING IS AS VARIOUS AS IT IS IN THE FINE ARTS and is based on the expressive premises of two types of lines: straight lines and curved ones. Straight lines have a definite spatial direction, while curves have freedom and unpredictability. Of course, this is the most general division into line types.

Behind the melodic pattern are meaningful intonation-rhythmic prototypes (prototypes): cantilena, declamation and one that can be conditionally called instrumental, which conveys all the unlimited variety of movement.

Different types of melodic pattern evoke different parallels with the visual arts and differ most markedly from each other in rhythmic terms.

Thus, the cantilena melody is distinguished not only by the predominance of narrow-volume intervals over wide ones, but also by the smoothness of rhythmic relationships, rather large durations, and a combination of diversity and repetition of rhythmic patterns. Associations with fine arts - a portrait, an image of an object or phenomenon, combining individual originality with generalization.

Declamatory melody, on the contrary, is distinguished by the sharpness of pitch and rhythmic relationships, the non-periodicity of melodic constructions and rhythmic patterns, and the “discontinuity” of pauses. Pictorial associations - graphics, with its sharpness, sharpness of lines. Both cantilena and declamatory melody, as a rule, unfold in the natural ranges of human voices.

The instrumental melody evokes ornamental and arabesque associations. It is characterized by motority or periodicity of rhythm, as well as exact or variant periodicity of melodic cells that develop over a wide range. Quite often, instrumental melody relies on chord intonations.

For a long time, different types of melody actively interact with each other. Declamatory rhythm intonations penetrate into the cantilena melody. When varying cantilena melody (in reprises of old da capo arias, for example), it acquired a virtuoso instrumental character. At the same time, a melody that sounds beyond the limits of the real voice range, filled with wide intervals, but in a large, weighty rhythm (side part from part 1 of Shostakovich's 5th symphony) is perceived as cantilena.

Often, a purely instrumental melody in terms of range and rhythm is entirely based on the narrow-volume, smooth intervals characteristic of the cantilena.

The most common property of a melodic pattern is NON-LINEARITY. The "straight lines" in the melody, as a rule, are fragments of a more complex, individualized pattern (the melody of Chopin's etude in A-flat major, the theme of enmity from Prokofiev's ballet "Romeo and Juliet", for example). Occasionally there are also very expressive straightforward themes, scale themes (a whole-tone scale - the theme of Chernomor in Glinka's Ruslan and Lyudmila, a tone-semitone scale in the volume of several octaves - the theme of the underwater kingdom in Sadko) In such themes, expressiveness comes to the fore , first of all, the features are MODAL, as well as RHYTHMIC, TEMBRO-REGISTER, DYNAMIC, ARTICULATION, etc.

Often, the melodic pattern is WAVE-SHAPED. The profile (outline) of the waves is not the same, and each has its own expressive prerequisites (a wave with a longer rise and a short decline is the most stable and complete).

In the regularities of the melodic pattern, the relationship between the height-spatial profile of the melody and the time of deployment of its constructions is manifested. The more direct the melodic rises and falls are, the more concise the phases of melodic deployment are (for example, in the two initial melodic phrases of the B minor prelude by Chopin), the more flattened and sinuous the melodic profile is, the longer the stages of melodic deployment are (the third phrase of the prelude in B minor by Chopin, melody of his own prelude in E minor).

The climax in the melody has an important formative meaning. The culmination is understood PROCESSUALLY, AS THE MOST INTENSE MOMENT ACHIEVED IN THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT. Due to the great diversity of the nature of music, the intensity of expression in climaxes varies widely and depends on a number of circumstances. The climax does not always coincide with the concept of a melodic peak. The vertex (vertex-source - one of the oldest types of melodic intonation) can also be at the beginning of a melody, while the climax is a procedural-dramatic concept.

The degree of intensity of the climax depends on the MODAL SIGNIFICANCE of the sound, or several sounds (there are culminations of a “point” and culminations of a “zone”.). Climaxes on unstable sounds are distinguished by a greater degree of tension. The LOCATION of the climax is also not indifferent. The culminations on the verge of the third-fourth quarter of the temporal construction (similar to the spatial “golden section point”) have the greatest spatio-temporal balance. Climaxes at the very end have an ecstatic imbalance and are quite rare. The degree of tension also depends on the melodic way of achieving it (PROGRESSIONAL or jump): CULMINATIONS, taken in a JUMP, are like a “bright, short-term FLASH”, ACHIEVED IN A PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT, they are distinguished by a greater “strength” of expression. And, finally, the degree of tension depends on the response (resonance) of other expressive means (harmony, texture, rhythm, dynamics). There can be several melodic climaxes, then their own line of relationships develops between them.

The relationship of a melody with other means of musical expressiveness is ambiguous and depends not only on its intonational-rhythmic side, but also on the musical WAREHOUSE (the principle of organizing musical fabric) and the musical image itself (more specific or multifaceted). MELODY can DOMINATE, MANAGING OTHER EXPRESSIVE MEANS, SUBJECTING THEM TO ITSELF, it can itself grow out of HARMONY - BE ITS “DIAGONAL” PROJECTION, more independent and “autonomous” development of melody and other expressive means is possible, which, as a rule, is characteristic of complex, multifaceted images , tense (for example, a diatonic melody has a tense-chromatic harmonization, or a modally dynamic melody unfolds for a long time against the background of a harmonic ostinato).

The formative role of melody can hardly be overestimated. Intonationally the most concentrated, the melody has a tremendous impact. All the changes that occur in the melody, or its invariance, make the relief of the flow of musical time very convex.

HARMONY

The broad meaning of this word means the deepest internal coherence and proportion, stretching from the cosmic movement of the planets, to harmonious coexistence, the proportionality of the combination, including musical sounds in harmony.

In music, HARMONY is also considered a more specific phenomenon - the science of consonances (chords) and their relationships with each other. The formation of harmony was no less a long historical process than the formation of melodic modes; from the depths of melodic polyphony, harmony is also born, in the ratio of consonances based on modal gravity.

There are two sides in harmony: PHONIC (THE STRUCTURE OF CONSONANCE AND ITS CONTEXT IMPLEMENTATION) and FUNCTIONAL (relationships of consonances with each other, deployed in time).

The PHONIC side depends not only on the STRUCTURE of consonance, but on its register, timbre, dynamic embodiment, location, melodic position, doubling, as a result of which the expressive role of even the same consonance is infinitely diverse. The more complex the consonance in terms of the number of sounds, the structure of the consonance, the MORE SIGNIFICANT THE ROLE OF THE FACTORS LISTED ABOVE. It is known that acute dissonance is SMOOTHED with the register distance of dissonant sounds. A twelve-sound CLUSTER within one octave gives the impression of a fused sound “SPOT”, and three seventh chords, or four triads spaced into different registers, give the impression of POLYHARMONY.

The FUNCTIONAL side has an important SHAPING significance, creating, thanks to the gravitation of consonances, a feeling of real continuity of time, and harmonic CADENCES create the deepest CAESURAS, marking its dissection. The shaping role of the functional side of harmony is not limited to harmonic turns (their length can be different), but continues in the tonal plan of the work, where the ratios of keys form FUNCTIONS OF THE HIGHER ORDER.

The phonic and functional sides have a feedback: the complication of the phonic side weakens the CLARITY of the functional side, which to a certain extent can be compensated for by other means of expression (rhythmic, timbre, dynamic, articulatory) supporting the SIMILARITY of functional connections or subordinating consonance to the melodic direction of movement.

WAREHOUSE AND INVOICE

Texture - in other words, musical fabric, can have both a generalized and a CONTEXT meaning. The texture is closely connected with the musical warehouse, the fundamental coordination of musical means.

The earliest of the main musical warehouses is MONODY, (monophony), in which intonational, rhythmic, timbre and dynamic characteristics exist as an inseparable whole.

Polyphony is formed from monody for a historically long time and the prerequisites for the emergence of various musical warehouses are created in it - both polyphonic and homophonic-harmonic. HETEROPHONY (sub-voice warehouse) precedes POLYPHONY, and BOURDON TWO- AND THREE-VOICE - HOMOPHONE-HARMONIC WAREHOUSE.

IN HETEROPHONY, non-monophony arises EPISODICALLY, FROM DIFFERENT VARIANTS OF ONE melodic voice, which is quite natural for the music of the oral tradition. Bourdon polyphony presupposes sharp differences in different layers: a long-lasting sound or consonance (of instrumental, bagpipe origin), against which a more mobile MELODIC VOICE unfolds.

The very principle of DIFFERENT FUNCTIONALITY is, of course, the forerunner of the homophonic warehouse. Tape two-voice also heralds polyphony, although both voices have the same melodic meaning (tape two-voice is the DOUBLING of a melodic voice initially at the same interval, initially into perfect consonance, later categorically expelled by the norms of later polyphony) Later, doublings are more free and varied ( dubbing at variable intervals), which gives the voices a little more independence, although it retains their general MELODIC nature. In folk music, much earlier than in professional music, the CANON appears - a two- or three-voice performance of the same melody, which starts AT THE TIME. Later, the canon (the basis of IMITATION POLYPHONY) becomes one of the important development factors in professional music.

POLYPHONY - polyphony of melodically equal voices. In polyphony (another name is COUNTERPOINT in the broad sense of the word), the functions of the voices in simultaneity are DIFFERENT. There is a function of MAIN voice and COUNTERPOINT, or COUNTERPOINTS (depending on the number of votes). The equality and independence of voices are ensured by the transition of these functions from voice to voice (circulation), as well as by COMPLEMENTARY RHYTHM, INDIVIDUALIZING MOVEMENT (rhythmic inhibition in one of the voices is compensated by the rhythmic activity of others, which, on the one hand, enhances the independence of each line, and on the other hand, strengthens time-measuring regularity of the metrorhythm). The polyphonic texture is distinguished by intonational unity and a special “democratic” correlation of voices (due to the looseness of functions, their constant movement from voice to voice), evokes associations with conversation, communication, discussion of a topic, free movement-walk.

Mature polyphony crystallizes the important dynamic formative role of HARMONY, which activates the development of INDEPENDENT MELODIC VOICES.

HOMOPHONE-HARMONIC WAREHOUSE is a polyphony of DIFFERENT FUNCTIONAL (i.e., unequal voices). THE FUNCTION OF THE MAIN VOICE - MELODIES - IS PERMANENTLY (or for a long time) ASSIGNED TO ONE OF THE VOICES (most often, the upper one, sometimes the lower one, less often the middle one). ACCOMPANYING VOICES ARE FUNCTIONALLY DIFFERENTIATED - this is the function of BASS, the harmonic support, the “foundation”, like the melody, highlighted register and rhythmically, and the function of HARMONIC FILLING, as a rule, having the most diverse rhythmic and register embodiment. The homophonic texture is somewhat similar to the coordination of a ballet scene: in the foreground there is a soloist (melody), deeper - a corps de ballet - where there is a corps de ballet soloist (bass), performing a more complex, significant part, and corps de ballet dancers (harmonic filling) - (different characters , whose costumes and roles change in different acts of the ballet). The homophonic texture is rigidly coordinated and functionally differentiated, in contrast to the polyphonic one.

Both in polyphonic and homophonic textures, DUPLICATIONS are often found (most often - doublings in one interval or another, simultaneous or sequential). In polyphonic music, duplications are more typical of organ music (mostly achieved by the inclusion of an appropriate register), in clavier music they are more rare. In homophonic music, duplications are more widespread in relation to individual textural functions or capture all functions. This is especially typical of orchestral music, although it is also common in piano and ensemble music.

The CHORD warehouse is most likely to be attributed to the intermediate ones. With polyphony, it is brought together by the same nature of voices (harmonic), and with homophonic - by the function of bass, harmonic support. But in the chordal warehouse, all voices move in the same rhythm (isorhythmic), which, along with the register compactness of the voices, does not allow the UPPER VOICE TO BECOME THE MAIN VOICE (melody). The votes are equal, but this is the equality of walking in formation. Doublings are also found in the chord warehouse: most often, the bass, which enhances its function, or duplications of all voices. The expressiveness of such music is distinguished by great restraint, rigor, and sometimes asceticism. There is an easy transition from a chordal warehouse to a homophonic-harmonic one - a rather rhythmic individualization of the UPPER VOICE (see, for example, the beginning of the slow movement from Beethoven's 4th sonata).

Music warehouses very often interact with each other, both sequentially and SIMULTANEOUSLY. This is how MIXED WAREHOUSES or COMPLEX POLYPHONY are formed. This can be the interaction of homophonic-harmonic and polyphonic warehouses (enriching the homophonic warehouse with the functions of counterpoints of one kind or another, or a polyphonic form unfolding against the background of homophonic accompaniment), but also the combination of several different musical warehouses in a textural context.

The shaping role of texture has significant possibilities for creating both unity, unity, and dismemberment of music. In classical and romantic music, the formative role of texture is manifested, as a rule, in a close-up, to create unity and contrasts between large sections of the form and parts of cycles. . The expressive meaning of changes in short constructions, which are widespread in classical and romantic music, is rather expressive than formative, emphasizing the versatility of the image. Significant changes in the formative role of texture in the process of historical development, perhaps, did not occur.

TEMP, timbre, dynamics.

TEMP in music has strong psycho-physiological vital roots, and therefore has a great immediacy of influence. Its shaping role, as a rule, manifests itself in a close-up, in the ratio of parts of cyclic works, often typified and regularly organized in terms of tempo (for example, in a classical symphonic cycle, a concerto for solo instruments with an orchestra, a baroque orchestral concerto). For the most part, fast tempos are associated with movement, action, and slow tempos are associated with meditation, reflection, contemplation.

Most cyclic works of baroque and classical music are characterized by tempo stability within each movement. The episodic tempo changes that occur have an expressive meaning, giving a lively flexibility to the flow of the music.

The expressive and formative role of TEMBRA and DYNAMICS turned out to be HISTORICALLY VARIABLE. In these means, which also directly and strongly influence, the inverse relationship between their expressive and formative role is clearly manifested. THE MORE VARIOUS EXPRESSIVE APPLICATION, THE LESS SIGNIFICANT THEIR SHAPING ROLE.

So, in Baroque music, orchestral compositions are very diverse and unstable. The deployment of the timbre side is dominated, in essence, by ONE PRINCIPLE: COMPARISON OF THE SONARITY OF TUTTI (the sound of the whole orchestra) and SOLO (individual or group), the changes of which coincided with the large relief of the musical form. These shifts are also associated with DYNAMIC comparisons: louder sonority in tutti, and quieter - in solo. It can be said that all orchestral music of the Baroque, in terms of dynamics and sonority, repeats the timbre and dynamic capabilities of the CLAVIER, which had the ability to create only TWO TIMBER and DYNAMIC GRADES due to the design features of this group of keyboard instruments, although the dynamic capabilities of string and wind instruments are much more diverse. Thus, changes in timbres and dynamics are of significant importance in shaping.

In classical and romantic music, the EXPRESSIVE side of these means, of course, PREDOMINATES, being distinguished by a huge variety and changeability, while the SHAPING side LOSES any noticeable significance. The leading formative role in the music of that time belongs to the individualized thematic and tonal-harmonic plan.

In the process of historical development, in almost all means of expression, a general TREND OF INDIVIDUALIZATION appears.

In the field of modal-melodic, it begins as early as the 19th century (whole-tone mode, Rimsky-Korsakov mode.). In the 20th century, the trend intensifies. It can be based on various interactions of the traditional tonal system (as, for example, in the music of Hindemith, Prokofiev, Shostakovich and many other composers of the 20th century, whose music is distinguished by its unique individuality). The tendency of individualization finds its extreme expression in dodecaphonic and serial music, where scale-melodic phenomena acquire a CONTEXT CHARACTER, LOSSING THE UNIVERSALITY of possibilities. The metaphorical connection between LANGUAGE and MUSIC (music is a language whose words are formed in context) can be continued (in dodecaphone and serial music, not words, but LETTERS are formed in context). Similar processes take place in harmony, where both the consonances themselves and their connections with each other have a CONTEXT (single, “one-time”) meaning. The reverse side of originality is the loss of universality.

Significant individualization in the music of the twentieth century is also manifested in the METRORHYTHM. Here the influence of non-European musical cultures, and the author's ingenuity (Messian, Xenakis) are felt. In many works by different composers, the traditional notation of the metrorhythm is abandoned, and the string HRONOS is introduced into the score, which measures time in real physical units: seconds and minutes. The timbre and textural parameters of the music are significantly updated. The regularities and properties of time (its fusion and dissection) remain the same. The rejection of the traditional pitch and metro-rhythmic organization leads to an increase in the formative role of such means as timbre and dynamics. It was in the 20th century that the shaping role of timbre and dynamics becomes truly independent in some works by Lutoslawski, Penderecki, Schnittke, Serocki and others. cope with the task of embodying the essential properties of time - its fusion and discreteness.

Means of musical expression always complement each other. However, the structure of this complementarity can be different, depending on the nature of the musical image, clearer, more integral, specific, or multifaceted, more complex. With a certain nature of music, as a rule, the structure of complementarity can be conditionally called MONOLITHIC or RESONING. When in music there is a kind of “stratification” of expressive means into several layers-planes, the structure of complementarity can be called MULTIPLE, DETAILED, DIFFERENTIATED. For example. In Chopin's prelude in E minor, the repeatedly repeated melodic intonation is accompanied by an evenly pulsing chromatically rich harmony, in which many delays pass from voice to voice, creating considerable tension. Quite often, in music there are signs of several genres at the same time. So, for example, in the same Chopin, the genre features of the chorale are combined with the features of the march, barcarolle; genre combination of march and lullaby. A chromatically rich melody can sound against the background of a harmonic ostinato, or harmonic variation occurs with an invariably repeated melody. Detailed complementarity is found both in baroque music (most of all in ostinato variations) and in classical music, increasing quantitatively in romantic and later music. But even in the music of the 20th century, monolithic complementarity does not disappear. It is worth recalling once again that everything depends on the degree of clarity or the complex diversity of the musical image.

PERIOD

The period is one of the most flexible, versatile, diverse musical forms. The word period (cycle, circle) implies some completeness or inner unity.

In music, this word comes from literature, where it means a common statement, similar to a paragraph of printed text. Literary paragraphs are concise and detailed, consisting of one or more sentences, simple or complex, with varying degrees of completeness. We see the same diversity in music.

Due to the significant diversity of the structure of the period, it is difficult to give it a definition other than a FUNCTIONAL definition in homophonic music.

THE PERIOD developed as a TYPICAL FORM OF EXPOSURE OF THE HOMOPHONE THEME, OR ITS MAIN INITIAL STAGE.

In the historical development of music, not only the intonational side, the genre origins of the musical theme changed, but, much more significantly, the material side of the theme (its WAREHOUSE, EXTENSION). In polyphonic music, the presentation of the THEME is, as a rule, ONE VOICE and, often, laconic. THE PERIOD OF THE TYPE OF DEPLOYMENT, widespread in Baroque music, is a long stage of inventive variant development and a varying degree of completion of the BRIEF POLYPHONIC THEME outlined earlier. Such a period often gravitates towards fusion or disproportionate dissection, to tonal-harmonic openness. Of course, in the music of Bach and Handel there are also periods of another type: short, consisting of two equal, often similarly beginning sentences (in suites and partitas, for example). But such periods are much less. In homophonic music - a period - a presentation of the entire theme or its main first section.

At the heart of the period is the HARMONIC SIDE, from which the STRUCTURAL and THEMATIC SIDE follow. The RHYTHMIC SIDE is fairly independent of the above.

From the HARMONIC SIDE, the tonal plan (SINGLE-TONE or MODULATING period) and the degree of completion (CLOSED - with a stable cadence, and OPEN - with an unstable or no cadence) are essential. Large parts of the period that have a harmonic cadence are called SENTENCES, which determines the next, STRUCTURAL SIDE. If there are several sentences in a period, then the cadences in them are more often different. There are many variants of their ratios and degree of difference. Less common are the same cadences in sentences that are different in music (the exact repetition of the period DOES NOT FORM). IN CLASSICAL MUSIC CONSTRUCTIONS LESS THAN A PERIOD ARE NOT REPEATED. The period often has a marked or written (as a rule, modified) repetition. Repetition streamlines the rhythmic side of music (periodicity) and organizes perception.

In the STRUCTURAL plan there are periods. INDIVISIBLE INTO OFFERS. It is quite appropriate to call them PERIOD-SUPPLY, BECAUSE THE HARMONIC CADENCE IS AT THE END. The name CONTINUOUS PERIOD IS WORSE, since within such a period there can be clear and deep caesuras not supported by harmonic cadences (the main part of Haydn's sonata in E-flat major, for example). Often there are periods of TWO SENTENCES. They can be simple or COMPLEX. In a difficult period, two steady cadences in DIFFERENT KEYS. There are also simple periods of THREE SENTENCES. If there are several proposals, the question arises about their THEMATIC RELATIONSHIP.

IN THE THEMATIC PLAN, PERIODS CAN BE REPEATED RATIO (simple and complex periods of two sentences, periods of three sentences). In them, sentences begin the same way, similarly, or CONSEQUENTLY (same beginnings in DIFFERENT KEYS, sequence at a distance). The tonal ratios of the two sentences are already very diverse in classical music. In further historical development, they become even more diverse and complex. Simple periods of two and three sentences can be NON-REPEATED THEMATIC RELATION (their beginnings do not have an obvious similarity, primarily melodic). PARTIALLY REPEATED RELATIONSHIP can only be periods of THREE SENTENCES (similar beginnings - in two sentences out of three - 1-2, 2-3, 1-3).

The rhythmic side of the period is not so directly related to the three sides discussed earlier. SQUARE (powers of the number 2 - 4, 8. 16, 32, 64 bars) creates a feeling of proportionality, balance, strict proportion. NON-SQUARE (other extensions) - greater freedom, efficiency. Within the period, the functional triad unfolds repeatedly and unregulated. The intensity of the manifestation of form-building forces depends, first of all, on the nature of the music.

SQUARE and NON-SQUARE are formed depending on TWO REASONS - ON THE NATURE OF THEMATISM (often, ORGANICALLY NON-SQUARE) and INTENSITY OF MANIFESTATION OF SHAPE-SHAPING FORCES. ACTIVATION OF THE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE causes EXPANSION (development that occurs before a stable cadence), followed by activation of the CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, causing ADDITION (assertion of the achieved stability after a cadence). These phenomena (addition, expansion), seemingly clearly delimited, are often closely intertwined. So, the expansion is not always balanced by the addition. Sometimes an extension occurs within an addition that has already begun (see, for example, the main part of the finale of Beethoven's Pathetique Sonata), the addition can be interrupted before a stable ending (the end of the first section of Chopin's Nocturne in F major). This is typical both for individual means of expression and for music as a whole. VARIABILITY OF FUNCTIONS.

In classical instrumental music, the period does not occur as an independent form (occasionally one can meet the period as a form of a small aria). In romantic and later music, the genre of instrumental and vocal MINIATURE (preludes, album leaves, various dances, etc.) is widely used. In them, the period is often used as an independent form (sometimes it is called a SINGLE-PART form). Preserving all the variety of structural, thematic and rhythmic aspects, in terms of tonal-harmonic terms, the period becomes monophonic and complete, practically without exception (although the internal tonal-harmonic development can be intense and complex - in Scriabin and Prokofiev, for example). In the period as an independent form, the length of extensions and additions can significantly increase. In additions, there are often moments of reprise. In predominantly vocal music, instrumental introductions and postlude codas are possible.

The universal flexibility of the form of the period is confirmed by the frequent presence in it of signs of other, larger musical forms: two-part, three-part, sonata exposition, signs of rondo-likeness, sonata form without development. These signs are found already in classical music and are amplified in later music (see, for example, Chopin's Nocturne in E minor, his Prelude in B minor, Lyadov's Prelude op. 11, Prokofiev's Evanescence No. 1)

The diversity in the structure of the period is due to DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ITS ORIGIN AND THEIR INTERACTION WITH EACH OTHER. It is worth recalling that one of them is the POLYPHONIC PERIOD OF THE TYPE OF DEPLOYMENT with its inclination towards fusion or disproportionate dissection, tonal-harmonic openness, intensity of variant development. The other is the STRUCTURES of FOLK MUSIC with their clarity and simplicity of thematic and rhythmic relationships.

SIMPLE FORMS.

This is the name of a large and varied group of forms of several parts (usually two or three). They are united by a similar function (an impulse for the form as a whole) and the form of 1 part (the period of a particular structure). This is followed by the stage of THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT and completion, expressed in one way or another.

In simple forms there are ALL TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT (VARIANT, VARIANT-CONTINUING, CONTINUED). Not infrequently, sections of simple forms are repeated exactly or in variations. Forms with CONTINUED development should be called TWO-DIM.

The diversity in the structure of simple forms is due to the same reasons as the diversity of the structure of the period (different sources of origin: the forms of baroque polyphony and the structure of folk music).

It can be assumed that varieties of a simple two-part form are somewhat “older” than a three-part one, so we will consider them first.

Of the three varieties of the simple two-part form, one is closest to the old two-part form. This is a SIMPLE TWO-PIECE SINGLE-DOM SILENT FORM. In it, the first part is very often a MODULATING (usually in a dominant direction) period (in this there is an undoubted similarity with part 1 of the OLD TWO-PART form, and part 2 gives its variant development, ending in the MAIN KEY. As in the old two-part, in 2 part, the function of DEVELOPMENT is expressed more prominently, and, often, more continuously than the function of COMPLETION, which manifests itself in TONAL CLOSEDNESS.Another proposed model of a SIMPLE TWO-PART SINGLE-Dark WITHOUT REPRESENTATION FORM is a period of two sentences of a non-repeated thematic correlation, where the 2nd sentence also performs the function of DEVELOPMENT in relation to to 1 (the development is usually VARIANT).The ratio of the length of the parts both in the old two-part and in the two-part one-dark homophonic two-part form is different: there are equal length ratios, but, often, the 2nd part is greater than 1, sometimes significantly.The functional ratio of the parts is as follows : 1 h -I, 2 -MT.

The other two varieties of the simple two-part form have their roots in FOLK MUSIC.

A SIMPLE TWO-PART TWO-DIMENSIONAL FORM is based on the principle of simple juxtaposition, on the principle of CONTRAST PAIRING, which is very typical for folk art (song - dance, solo - choral). One of the syntactic structures, a pair of periodicities, can also serve as a prototype of this form. The semantic relationship of the two themes can have three options: DIFFERENT EQUAL (the main part of the 1st part of the 12th piano sonata by Mozart / K-332 /; MAIN - ADDITIONAL (solo - chorus) - (the theme of the finale of Beethoven's sonata 25); INTRODUCTORY - MAIN (MAIN PART OF THE FINAL 12 SONATAS by Mozart /K-332/).It is in this variety of form that part 2 is often written in the form of a period, since CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT IS A STATEMENT OF A NEW THEME, and the period is the most typical form for this.Thus, the function of development and completion (mt) is veiled by the STATEMENT of the new topic function (I). The length of the topics can be the same or different.

A SIMPLE TWO-PART REPRISE form is distinguished by FUNCTIONAL COMPLETENESS and DIFFERENCE, RHYTHMIC PROPORTIONALITY, which is very important in this variety. 1 part in it, as a rule, a period of 2 sentences (often, modulating, repeated or non-repeated ratio of equally long sentences). Part 2 is divided into two sections: MIDDLE (M), equal in length to one sentence, and REPRISE (t), repeating exactly or with changes one of the sentences of part 1. IN THE MIDDLE, most often there is a VARIANT or VARIANT-CONTINUED development of part 1, as a rule, without a stable ending. Changes in the REPRISE can be either purely harmonic (exact repetition is impossible, and 1 sentence is due to an unstable cadence, and 2 due to modulation), or more significant and varied (in section 1 of the slow movement 1 of Beethoven's sonata, for example). In the REPRIZE, extensions and additions are rather rare, since the balance of proportions typical of this variety is violated (see, for example, the slow movement of Haydn's sonata in E-flat major, Scriabin's prelude op. 11 No. 10). Due to the short length of the MIDDLE, continued development in it and a deep contrast is a great rarity (see, for example, 11 Prokofiev's fleetingness).

It can be assumed that a SIMPLE THREE-PART FORM “GROWS” from a SIMPLE TWO-PART REPRISE FORM.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF DEVELOPMENT also occur in the SIMPLE THREE-PART FORM. It can be SINGLE (with variant development in 2 parts - MIDDLE), TWO-DIM (with continuing development), and with MIXED development (with variant-continuing, or continuing and variant replacing each other, in one sequence or another.

A significant difference from a simple two-part reprise form is the EXTENSION OF THE MIDDLE. It is not less than 1 part, and sometimes more than it (see, for example, 1 section of the Scherzo from Beethoven's 2 sonatas). The middle of a simple three-part form is characterized by a significant increase in tonal-harmonic instability, openness. Often there are ligaments, predicates to a reprise. Even in the two-dark, three-movement form (with continuing development), a new theme is rarely presented in the form of a period (see, for example, Chopin's mazurka in A-flat major, op. 24 No. 1). A rare exception is the Mazurka in G minor by Chopin op.67 No. 2, where the 2nd movement is a theme in the form of a period. After this repeated theme, there is an extended monophonic link to the reprise.

Reprises can be divided into two types: EXACT and MODIFIED. The range of changes encountered is very wide. DYNAMIC (or DYNAMIC) can be considered only such altered reprises in which the tone of expression and tension is enhanced (see, for example, the reprise of section 1 of the minuet from Beethoven's sonata 1). Expression tension may also decrease (see, for example, the reprise of section 1 of Allegretto from Beethoven's sonata 6). In the modified reprises, it is necessary to talk about the nature of the changes that have occurred, since the semantic meaning of the reprises is wide and ambiguous. In the altered reprises, the centrifugal force retains and shows activity, therefore, the completion function (T), associated with the activation of the centripetal force, continues in ADDITION or CODE (their meaning is the same, but the code is more semantic, independent and extended).

In addition to varieties of simple two-part and three-part forms, there are forms similar to one or the other, but not coinciding with them. For them, it is advisable to use the proposed by Yu.N. Kholopov's name SIMPLE REPRISE FORM. In this form, the middle is equal to half of 1 part (as in the SIMPLE TWO-PART REPRISE FORM), and the repetition is equal to 1 part or more of it. This form is often found in the music of the classics and romantics (see, for example, the theme of the finale of Haydn's sonata in D major No. 7, minuets 1 and 2 from Mozart's sonata No. 4 /K-282 /, section 1 of Chopin's Mazurka op. 6 No. 1) . There are also several other options. The middle can be more than half of the 1st movement, but less than the entire 1st movement, while the reprise contains an intensive extension - the 2nd movement of the 4th Beethoven sonata. The middle is like in two-part form, and the reprise is extended almost to the length of 1 part - Largo appassionato from Beethoven's 2 sonata.

In simple forms, repetitions of parts, exact and varied, are widespread (exact ones are more typical for mobile music, and varied ones are more typical for lyrical). In two-part forms, each part can be repeated, only 1, only 2, both together. Repetitions in the three-part form indirectly confirm its origin from the reprise two-part form. The most common repetitions of parts are repetition 1 and 2-3 together, repetition of only 1 part, only 2-3 together. Repetition of the entire form. The repetition of each part of the three-part form, only 2 parts (Mazurka in G minor by Chopin op. 67 No. 2), or only 3 parts - are VERY RARE.

Already in classical music, simple forms are used both as independent ones and as forms of a developed presentation of topics and sections in others (in complex forms, variations, rondo, sonata form, rondo-sonata). In the historical development of music, simple forms retain both meanings, although due to the spread of the MINIATURE genre in instrumental and vocal music of the 19th and 20th centuries, their independent use is increasing.

COMPLEX FORMS

This is the name of the forms in which 1 section is written in one of the simple forms, followed by another stage of thematic development and completion, expressed in one way or another. The second part in complex forms, as a rule, contrasts in relief 1. and the thematic development in it is usually CONTINUING.

The prevalence of simple forms (two-part, three-part, simple reprise) is approximately the same, which cannot be said about complex forms. So, the COMPLEX TWO-PART FORM is quite rare, especially in instrumental music. Examples of a complex two-part form in vocal-instrumental music are far from indisputable. In the duet of Zerlina and Don Giovanni, the first section, repeated in couplets, is written in a simple recapitulation form, while the second section is undoubtedly an extended coda. The function of the coda is also obvious in the second part of Don Basilio's aria about slander from Rossini's opera The Barber of Seville. In the aria of Ruslan from Glinka's opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in part 1, the function of the introduction is tangible, since the next section of the aria (Give, Perun, damask sword) is much more complex and lengthy (a sonata form without development is rare for vocal music).

A striking example of a complex two-part form in instrumental music is Chopin's Nocturne in G minor, op.15 No.3. The first section is a simple two-part single-dark non-reprise form. The first period is very long. The character is lyric-melancholic, signs of the serenade genre are tangible. In the second part, intensive tonal-harmonic development begins, lyrical excitement grows, and expressive tone rises. A short decay of dynamics leads to the repetition of one sound in a deep bass register, which serves as a transition to the SECOND PART OF A COMPLEX TWO-PART FORM. Also written in a simple two-part single-dark non-reprise form, it contrasts strongly with the first movement. The music is closest to a chorale, but not sternly ascetic, but light, softened by a triple meter. This two-part form is tonally independent (variable F major - D minor), modulation into G minor occurs in the last bars of the piece. The ratio of images turns out to be the same as one of the variants of the ratio of themes in a simple two-part two-dark form - DIFFERENT - EQUAL.

A COMPLEX THREE-PART FORM is extremely widespread in music. Its two varieties, differing in the STRUCTURE of the SECOND PART, HAVE DIFFERENT GENRE ROOTS IN Baroque MUSIC.

A complex technical form with a TRIO comes from the double inserted (mainly gavotte, minuet) dances of the old suite, where at the end of the second dance there was an instruction to repeat the first dance. In a complex three-part form, unlike the suite, the trio introduces a tonal contrast, often reinforced by timbre-register and rhythmic contrast. The most typical keys of the trio are SAME-SAME AND SUB-DOMINANT KEYS, so there is often a CHANGE OF KEY SIGNS. Verbal designations are also frequent (TRIO, MAGGORE, MINORE). The TRIO is distinguished not only by its thematic and tonal independence, but also by its CLOSED STRUCTURE (PERIOD, OR, more often, ONE OF THE SIMPLE FORMS, often with repetition of parts). With tonal contrasting of the trio, after it there may be a modulating link to the REPRISE, which is introduced more smoothly. A complex three-part form with a trio is more typical of mobile music (minuets, scherzos, marches, other dances), less common in lyrical, slow-moving music (see, for example, Mozart's Piano Sonata in C major, K-330, part 2). "Remnants" of the Baroque can be found in some works of the classics (two minuets in Mozart's piano sonata in E-flat major, K-282, Haydn's sonata for violin and piano in G major No. 5).

A COMPLEX THREE-PART FORM WITH AN EPISODE comes from the old Italian aria da capo, in which the second part, as a rule, was much more unstable, changeable moods. The reprise of such an aria was always filled with variational improvisational changes in the part of the soloist.

A complex three-movement form with an EPISODE, which at the beginning, as a rule, relies on independent thematic material (continuing development), in the process of its deployment often involves the development of the thematic material of the 1st movement (see, for example, 2nd movement of Beethoven's Fourth Piano Sonata).

EPISODE, unlike TRIO, is OPEN tonally-harmonically and structurally. The episode is introduced more smoothly, preparing for a bunch, or starting in a closely related key (parallel). A completed typical structure is not formed in an episode, but a modulating period may occur at the beginning of an episode). A complex three-part form with an episode is more typical of lyrical music, although in Chopin, for example, it is also found in dance genres.

REPRIZES, as in simple forms, are of two types - EXACT and MODIFIED. The changes can be very varied. Abbreviated reprises are very common, when one initial period is repeated from 1 part, or developing and reprise sections of a simple form. In a complex three-part form with a trio, both exact reprises and abbreviated ones are often indicated. Of course, in a complex three-part form with a trio there are altered reprises (variation is more common than other changes), they, i.e., modified reprises) are more common in a complex three-part form with an EPISODE. In classical music in complex three-part form, dynamic reprises are less common than in simple three-part form (see the previous example from Beethoven's Fourth Sonata). Dynamization can extend to the coda (see, for example, Largo from Beethoven's Second Sonata). In a complex three-part form with an episode, the codes are, as a rule, more developed, and contrasting images interact in them, when, as in a complex three-part form with a trio, contrasting images are compared, and the codes, usually very laconic, are reminiscent of the music of the trio.

A mixture of features of the trio and the episode is already found in the Viennese classics. Thus, in the slow movement of Haydn's Grand Sonata in E-flat major, the second movement contrasts brightly, like a trio (the tonality of the same name, relief texture-register contrast, a clearly outlined simple two-part reprise form, harmonically open at the very end). In terms of intonation and thematic, the theme of this section is a modal and new in texture version of the theme of the first part. It happens that when parts of the standard form of the trio are repeated, variant changes are made there, turning the repeated section into a bundle (see, for example, the scherzo from Beethoven's Third Piano Sonata). In the music of the 19th and 20th centuries, one can also find a complex three-part form with a trio, with an episode, and with a mixture of their structural features.

Strictly speaking, complex forms should be considered only those in which not only part 1 is one of the simple forms, but the second part does not go beyond simple forms. Where the second section is larger and more complex, it is more appropriate to speak of LARGE THREE-PARTS, BECAUSE THE FORM FORMATION IN THEM IS MORE INDIVIDUAL AND FREE (scherzo from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Chopin's Scherzo, Wagner's Tannhäuser Overture, Taneyev's Minuet).

Repetitions of parts of complex forms, similar to repetitions in simple forms, are not so common, but they can be either exact or modified (usually varied). If the changes during repetition go beyond variation, affect the tonal plan, and (or) length, DOUBLE FORMS are formed (examples of double forms are Chopin's Nocturnes op. 27 No. 2 - a simple double three-part form with a coda, op. 37 No. 2 - a complex double three-part form with an episode). In dual forms, there are always signs of other forms.

In addition to simple and complex forms, there are also INTERMEDIATE IN DEGREE OF COMPLEXITY. In them, the first part is a period, as in simple forms, and the next section is written in one of the simple forms. It should be noted that the TWO-PART FORM, INTERMEDIATE between COMPLEX AND SIMPLE, is more common than the complex two-part form (see, for example, Balakirev's romance “Bring me in, oh night, secretly”, Chopin's mazurka in B minor No. 19 op. 30 No. 2). The three-part form, intermediate between simple and complex, is also quite common (Musical Moment in F minor by Schubert, op. 94 No. 3, for example). If the middle section in it is written in a simple three-part or simple reprise form, tangible features of symmetry appear, introducing a special completeness and beauty (see, for example, Chopin's mazurka in A minor No. 11op. 17 No. 2).

VARIATIONS

Variations are one of the most ancient musical forms. Different types of variations developed in the 16th century. However, the further historical development of some types of variations was uneven. So, in the late Baroque era, there are practically no variations on soprano ostinato, and ornamental variations are quantitatively inferior to variations on basso ostinato. Ornamental variations quantitatively predominate in classical music, almost completely replacing variations on basso ostinato (certain features of variations on basso ostinato are noticeable in Beethoven's 32 variations and his 15 variations with fugue.). Variations on the soprano ostinato occupy a very modest place (movement 2 of the "Kaiser" of the Haydn quartet, single variations within many ornamental cycles, a group of three variations in Beethoven's 32 variations), or interact with other principles of shaping (movement 2 of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony).

In the bowels of the ornamental variations, the features of the free, widely represented in romantic music, "ripen". Free variations, however, do not crowd out other types of variation from artistic practice. In the 19th century, variations on the soprano ostinato experienced a true heyday, especially in Russian opera music. Towards the end of the 19th century, interest in variations on the basso ostinato revived, continuing into the 20th century. The genres of chaconne and passacaglia acquire an ethically deep meaning of expressing generalized grief.

Variation themes can be divided into two groups according to their origin: authorial and borrowed from folk or popular music (there are also auto-borrowings, an example of which is Beethoven's 15 variations with a fugue).

The expressiveness of variational cycles is based on the dynamics of the ratio of UNCHANGING and UPDATED, in connection with which the concept of INVARIANT (unchanged in the process of variation) should be introduced. The invariant, as a rule, includes constant components, which are preserved throughout all variations, and variables, which are not preserved in terms of variations.

The "material" side of the musical theme is historically changeable. Therefore, different types of variations differ from each other in the STRUCTURE OF THE THEME and COMPOSITION OF THE INVARIANT.

There is a kind of dialectical tension between the integrity of the form and the cyclic features inherent in variations. Already by the 17th century, two different methods for completing variational cycles had developed. One of them is the PRINCIPLE OF CHANGE FOR THE LAST TIME, inherent in folk art. In this case, a sharp transformation of the invariant occurs in the last variation. The second one can be called "REPRISE CLOSURE". It consists in returning the theme in its original form, or close to it. In some variational cycles (by Mozart, for example), both methods are used at the end.

Let's start with the cycles of variations on the basso ostinato.

Often this type of variation is associated with the genres of passacaglia and chaconne - old dances of Spanish origin (however, for Couperin and Rameau, these dances are not such variations at all, for Handel, the passacaglia from the clavier suite in G minor is a variation of a mixed type, but this dance is not related has because of the DOUBLE size). Variations on basso ostinato are also found in vocal-instrumental and choral music without genre refinements, but in spirit and, most importantly, meter-rhythmic to these genres.

The constant components of the invariant are the PITTING LINE of a short (not longer than a period, sometimes a sentence) monophonic or polyphonic theme, from which the bass line is taken as an ostinato repeated, extremely intonationally generalized, descending chromatic orientation from degree I to V, endings are more diverse.

THE FORM OF THE THEME is also a constant component of the invariant (up to the last variation, which in organ passesacaglia, for example, is often written in the form of a simple or complex fugue).

TONALITY can be a constant component of an invariant (Bach's Chaconne from the solo violin partita in D minor, Bach's organ passacaglia in C minor, Dido's second aria from Purcell's Dido and Aeneas, and other examples), but it can also be VARIABLE (Vitali's Chaconne, first aria Dido, Buxtehude organ passacaglia in D minor, for example). HARMONY IS A VARIABLE component, RHYTHM, as a rule, is also a variable component, although it can be constant (Dido's first aria, for example).

The brevity of the theme and the polyphonic warehouse of music contribute to the combination of variations into groups by one or another intonation, textural, rhythmic features. Contrasts are formed between these groups. The most striking contrast is made by the group of in-mode variations. However, in a number of works, modal contrast is absent even in large cycles (for example, in the organ passacaglia in C minor by Bach, in the first aria of Dido, the contrast is tonal, but not modal).

VARIATIONS ON SOPRANO OSTINATO, as well as BASSO OSTINATO, in the PERMANENT COMPONENTS of the INVARIANT have a MELODIC LINE and FORM of the theme, which can be stated both in one voice and in many voices. This type of variation is very strongly associated with the genre of the song, and therefore, the length and form of the theme can be very different, from very concise to very detailed.

TONALITY can also be a CONSTANT COMPONENT of an INVARIANT, but it can also be a VARIABLE. HARMONY is more often a VARIABLE component.

Admittedly, variations of this type are the most common in opera music, where orchestral accompaniment has great potential to colorfully comment on the renewing textual content of the repeated melody (Varlaam's song from Mussorgsky's Boris Godunov, Marfa's aria from Khovanshchina, Lel's third song from Snegurochka) Rimsky-Korsakov, Volkhova's lullaby from "Sadko"). Often, small cycles of such variations approach the couplet-variation form (Vanya's song "How Mother Was Killed" from Glinka's "Ivan Susanin", the boyar's glorifying chorus from "Scenes under Kromy" from "Boris Godunov", etc.).

In instrumental music, such cycles usually include a small number of variations (Introduction to "Boris Godunov", Intermezzo from "The Tsar's Bride" by Rimsky Korsakov, for example). A rare exception is Ravel's "Bolero" - variations on a double ostinato: melody and rhythm.

Separate variations on the soprano ostinato are often included in the ornamental and free variations, as mentioned earlier, or interact with other form-building principles (mentioned II movement from Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, II movement of Franck's Symphony in D minor, II movement of Scheherazade by Rimsky- Korsakov).

The ORNAMENTAL VARIATIONS are based on the HOMOPHONE THEME, written, as a rule, in one of the simple forms, often with typical marked repetitions of parts. The object of variation can be both the entire polyphonic whole, and individual aspects of the theme, harmony, for example, or melody. The melody is subjected to the most diverse ways of variation. There are 4 main types of melodic variation (ornamentation, chant, re-intonation and reduction), each of which can dominate over the entire variation or a significant part of it, and interact with each other sequentially or simultaneously.

ORNAMENTATION introduces a variety of melodic-melismatic changes, with abundant use of chromaticity in whimsical rhythmic movement, making its appearance more refined and refined.

CHANT "stretches" the melody into an extended smooth line in a motor or ostinato rhythmic pattern.

RE-INTONING introduces the freest changes into the intonational-rhythmic shape of the melody.

REDUCTION "enlarges", "straightens" the rhythm intonations of the theme.

The interplay of different types of melodic variation creates endless possibilities for change.

The significantly greater length of the theme and, consequently, of each variation contributes to the independence of each of them. That does not at all exclude their association in small (2-3 variations) groups. Noticeable genre contrasts arise in ornamental variations. So, in many variations of Mozart, there are usually arias of various types, duets, finals. Beethoven's gravitation towards instrumental genres (scherzo, march, minuet) is more noticeable. Approximately in the middle of the cycle, the most striking contrast is introduced by a variation in the SAME MODE. In small cycles (4-5 variations) there may be no modal contrast.

THE PERMANENT COMPONENTS OF THE INVARIANT are KEY and FORM. HARMONY, METER, TEMP can only be fixed components, but are much more often VARIABLE components.

In some variational cycles, virtuoso improvisational moments arise, cadences that change the length of individual variations, some become harmonically open, which, along with relief genre contrasts, comes close to free (characteristic) variations.

FREE VARIATIONS with respect to themes are no different from ORNAMENTAL. These are the same author's or borrowed homophonic themes in one of the simplest forms. Free variations integrate the tendencies of ornamental variations and basso ostinato variations. Bright genre contrasts, frequent names of individual variations (fugato, nocturne, romance, etc.) reinforce the tendency for the variation to turn into a separate piece of cyclic form. This results in an expansion of the tonal plan and a change in form. A feature of the INVARIANT IN FREE VARIATIONS is the ABSENCE OF PERMANENT COMPONENTS, all of them, including tonality and form, are variables. But there is also an opposite trend: there are harmonically open variations, the expansion of the tonal plan leads to ligaments that change shape. Free variations are comparatively more often "disguised" under other names: Schumann's "Symphonic Etudes", Grieg's "Ballad", Rachmaninoff's "Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini". The object of variation is not the theme as a whole, but its individual fragments, intonations. In free variations, no new methods of melodic variation arise, an arsenal of ornamental ones is used, only even more inventively.

Variations on two themes (double variations) are noticeably less common. They are found both among the ornamental and among the free ones. Their structure may be different. The sequential presentation of two, as a rule, contrasting themes, continues with their alternate variation (part II of Haydn's symphony with timpani tremolo). However, in the process of variation, the strict alternation of themes can be violated (Part II of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony). Another option is the appearance of a second theme after a series of variations on the first theme (Glinka's Kamarinskaya, Frank's Symphonic Variations, Prokofiev's Finale of the Symphony-Concerto for Cello and Orchestra, Balakirev's Islamey). Further development can also proceed differently. Usually, in double variations, the “form of the second plan” (rondo-shaped, large three-part, sonata) is felt even more clearly.

Variations on three themes are rare and necessarily combined with other principles of shaping. Balakirev's "Overture on Three Russian Themes" is based on sonata form with an introduction.

RONDO AND RONDO-SHAPED FORMS

RONDO (circle) in its most generalized and indirect form, the idea of ​​cosmic circulation, which has received a variety of embodiments in folk and professional art. These are circular dances that are found among all the peoples of the world, and the structure of the text of a couplet song with the same text of the chorus, and the poetic form of the rondel. In music, manifestations of rondo-likeness are perhaps most diverse and show a tendency towards historical variability. This is due to its temporary nature. The “translation” of the spatial “idea” into the temporal plane is quite specific and most clearly manifested in the repeated return of one theme (unchanged or varied, but without a significant change in character) after music that differs from it in one degree or another of contrast.

Definitions of the RONDO form exist in two versions: generalized and more specific.

The generalized definition is a FORM IN WHICH ONE THEME IS CARRIED OUT AT LEAST THREE TIMES, SEPARATED BY MUSIC DIFFERENT FROM THE REPEATED THEME, corresponds both to all historical varieties of rondo, and to the whole set of rondo-shaped forms, including rondo-sonata.

Specific definition: A FORM IN WHICH ONE THEME IS HELD AT LEAST THREE TIMES, SEPARATED BY DIFFERENT MUSIC, corresponds only to a significant part of couplet rondos and classical rondo.

Repeated return of the theme creates a feeling of completeness, roundness. External signs of rondality can be found in any musical form (the sound of the introduction theme in the development and code of the sonata form, for example). However, in many cases such returns occur organically (with the repetition of the middle and reprise traditional for three-part forms, as well as in some others that will be discussed later). Rondality, like variation, easily penetrates into a variety of principles of shaping.

The first historical variety, the "COUPLET" RONDO, became widespread in the Baroque era, especially in French music. This name is quite often found in musical text (verse 1, verse 2, verse 3, etc.). Most rondos begin with a REFRAIN (a recurring theme), with EPISODES between its returns. Thus, the number of parts turns out to be odd, even rondos are less common.

The couplet rondo is found in music of the most diverse nature, lyrical, dance, energetic-scherzo. This variety, as a rule, does not contain relief contrasts. Episodes are usually built on a variant or variant-continuing development of the refrain theme. REFRAIN, as a rule, is short (no more than a period) and, completing the verse, sounds in the main key. The couplet rondo tends to be multipart (up to 8-9 couplets), but is often limited to 5 necessary parts. Most of all seven-part rondos. In a fairly large number of examples, there is a repetition of couplets (episode and refrain) in their entirety, except for the last couplet. In many couplet rondos, an increase in the length of episodes can be noted (for Rameau, Couperin). The tonal plan of episodes does not show regular trends, they can begin in the main key and in other keys, be harmonically closed or open. In dance rondos, episodes can be melodically more independent.

In German music, the couplet rondo is less common. I.S. Bach has few such examples. But rondality is palpable in the Old Concerto form, although it obeys a different rhythm of deployment (in the couplet rondo, the episode gravitates towards the refrain, "flows" into it, in the Old Concerto form the repeated theme has different continuations arising from it), it lacks the regularity of stable cadences and structural the clarity of the couplet rondo. In contrast to the strict tonal "behavior" of the refrain in the old concerto form, the theme can begin in different keys (in the first movements of Bach's Brandenburg Concertos, for example).

Philipp Emmanuel Bach's rather numerous rondos are a special phenomenon. They are distinguished by considerable freedom and boldness of tonal plans and, in practice, anticipate some features of the free rondo. Often, the refrain becomes more structurally developed (simple forms), which brings it closer to the classical rondo, but further development moves away from classical structural patterns.

The second historical variety - CLASSICAL RONDO - reveals the impact on it of other homophonic forms (complex tripartite, variational, partly sonata), and itself actively interacts with other homophonic forms (it was during this period that the rondo-sonata form was formed and actively spread).

In classical music, the word RONDO has a double meaning. This is both the name of a FORM-STRUCTURE, very clear and definite, and the name of a GENRE of music with song and dance, scherzo origins, where there are signs of rondo-likeness, sometimes only external ones. Written in notes, the word RONDO, as a rule, has a genre meaning. The structure of the classical rondo is often used in a different genre plane, in lyrical music, for example (Mozart's Rondo in A minor, the second movement from Beethoven's Pathétique Sonata, etc.).

The classical rondo is limited to a minimum number of parts: three passages of the refrain, separated by two episodes, in addition, a coda is possible, sometimes very long (in some rondos of Mozart and Beethoven).

The influence of a complex three-part form is manifested primarily in the bright, relief contrasting of the episodes, as well as in the "enlargement" of the parts - both the refrain and the episodes are often written in one of the simple forms. The tonal plan of episodes that introduce a modal-tonal contrast is stabilized. The most typical are the tonality of the same name and the tonality of a subdominant meaning (of course, there are other tonality).

The refrain, retaining tonal stability like the couplet rondo, varies much more often, sometimes varies sequentially. The length of the refrain may also change, especially in the second conduct (repetitions of parts of a simple form that were in the first conduct may be removed or a reduction to one period may occur).

The influence of the sonata form is manifested in the ligaments in which the developmental, as a rule, development of the theme of the refrain takes place. The technical need for the connection arises after the tonal episode. In Haydn, the role of ligaments is minimal, more developed ligaments are found in Mozart and, especially, in Beethoven. They appear not only after episodes, but also precede episodes and coda, often reaching considerable length.

Haydn's Rondo is most similar to a complex three- to five-part form with two different trios. In Mozart and Beethoven, the first episode is usually structurally and harmonically open, while the second is more detailed and structurally complete. It is worth noting that the form of the classical rondo is presented quantitatively very modestly among the Viennese classics, and even less often has the name rondo (Mozart's Rondo in A minor, for example). Under the name RONDO, which has a genre significance, there are often other rondo-shaped forms, more often than others, RONDO-SONATA, which will be considered later.

The next historical variety, FREE RONDO, integrates the properties of couplet and classical. From the classical comes a bright contrast and unfolding of the episodes, from the couplet - an inclination towards multipartness and the frequent brevity of the refrain. Own features - in changing the semantic emphasis from the immutability of the return of the refrain to the diversity and variegation of the cycle of being. In the free rondo, the refrain acquires tonal freedom, and the episodes - the ability to sound repeatedly (as a rule, not in a row). In a free rondo, the refrain can not only be abbreviated, but also skipped, as a result of which there are two episodes in a row (new and “old”). In terms of content, a free rondo is often characterized by images of a procession, a festive carnival, a mass scene, a ball. The name of the rondo rarely appears. Classical rondo is more widespread in instrumental music, somewhat less often in vocal music, free rondo quite often becomes a form of extended opera scenes, especially in Russian music of the 19th century (by Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky). The possibility of repeated sounding of episodes equates them in their "rights" with a refrain. The new meaningful perspective of the free rondo allows the form of the classical rondo to be preserved (the classical rondo has almost completely supplanted the couplet rondo) and to exist in artistic practice.

In addition to the considered historical varieties of rondo, the main feature of rondo (no less than three times the sound of one theme, shared by music that differs from it) is present in many musical forms, introducing signs of rondo-likeness less or more prominently and specifically.

There are signs of rondo-shape in three-part forms, where the repetition of 1 part and 2-3, or the repetition of 2-3 parts (three-five-part) is quite typical. Such repetitions are very typical for simple forms, but they also occur in complex ones (in Haydn, for example). There are signs of rondo-likeness in the cycles of double variations with alternate presentation and variation of themes. Such cycles usually end with the first theme or variation on it. These signs are also present in such a complex three-part form with a reprise reduced to one period, in which the first part was written in a simple three-part form with typical repetitions of parts (Chopin's Polonaise op. 40 No. 2, for example). The rondo-likeness is felt more clearly in double three-part forms, where the middles and reprises differ in tonal plan and / or / length. Double three-part forms can be simple (Chopin Nocturne op. 27 No. 2) and complex (Nocturne op. 37 No. 2).

The most prominent and specific manifestation of the rondo-shape in the THREE-PART FORM WITH REFRAIN. The refrain, usually written in the form of a period in the main key or of the same name, sounds after each part of the three-part form, simple (Chopin's Waltz op. 64 No. 2) or complex (the finale of Mozart's sonata in A major).

SONATA FORM

Among the homophonic forms, the sonata is distinguished by maximum flexibility, diversity and freedom (in terms of the amount of thematic material, its structural design, placement of contrasts), a strong logical connection between sections, and a tendency to unfold.

The roots of sonata form within baroque music. In the old two-part form, in the fugue and in the old sonata, the activity of tonal correlations played the most important role, creating the prerequisites for an organic and striving unfolding of music.

Within the sonata exposition there is also the ratio of two tonal centers that give names to the thematic sections - the MAIN part and the SIDE part. There are moments in the sonata exposition that are distinguished by significant multifunctionality, flexibility, and “elasticity”. This is, first of all, a LINKING party, and often a SIDE one, the course of which can be complicated by a “crisis zone”, which contributes to an even greater variety of structure.

The MAIN part always has the property of CHARACTERISTIC, which largely determines not only the course of the sonata form, but, often, the entire cycle.

In tonal-harmonic terms, the main parties can be monotonous and modulating, closed and open, which determines the greater aspiration of deployment or the greater regularity and structural dissection of the flow.

In semantic terms, the main parties are HOMOGENEOUS and CONTRAST, predetermining a greater impulsiveness of deployment. The length of the main parts varies quite widely - from one sentence (in Beethoven's First Sonata, for example) to expanded simple forms (Mozart's Twelfth Sonata, Tchaikovsky's symphonies) and thematic complexes (Prokofiev's Eighth Sonata, Shostakovich's symphonies). However, most often, the main parties represent a PERIOD of one structure or another.

The main function of the LINKING PART - GOING BEYOND THE LIMITS OF TONE-HARMONIC STABILITY - can be carried out even in the absence of this section, shifting to the end of the modulating or open main part. But besides the main function, ADDITIONAL ones are also possible. These are a) DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAIN PARTY, b) COMPLETION OF THE MAIN PARTY, c) INTRODUCTION OF SHADING CONTRAST, d) INTONATION AND THEMATIC PREPARATION OF THE SIDE PARTY, which can be combined and combined with each other in different ways. The connecting part can be built on the elements of the main part or independent material, both relief and background. This section can not only link the main and side parts (serve as a seamless transition between them), but also separate these thematic "territories", or adjoin one of them. Not always in the connecting part there is a modulation into the key of the side part. Usually, the tonal-harmonic instability increases in the connecting part, and the presence of some complete structures is considered atypical. However, with a pronounced function of shading contrast, it is not so rare to find a modulating period in the connecting part (in the first and second parts of the Seventh Sonata of Beethoven, for example, in the Fourteenth Sonata of Mozart K-457), and the intonation-melodic relief can be brighter than in the main party. The length of the connecting parties varies widely (from the complete absence or very brief constructions, in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, Schubert's "Unfinished" symphony, for example), to constructions that are significantly longer than the main part. In this regard, the course of the sonata exposition, its structural articulation becomes even more diverse.

A SIDE PARTY, as a rule, unfolds in the keys of a dominant value. It can be represented by a new tonal and textural version of the main part (in one-dark sonata form) or a new theme or several themes, the ratio of which to each other can be very different. Often the course of a side part is complicated by the intrusion of elements of the main or connecting parts, sharp harmonic shifts, and semantic dramatization. This reduces the stability of the side party, expands it and portends further development. Often, extensive fracture zones appear in music that is not at all dramatic in nature, but serenely cheerful (for example, in Haydn's piano sonata in D major). Such a phenomenon as a fracture zone is quite frequent, but not at all necessary. In side parts, typical musical forms are relatively rarely formed, although they are not excluded. So, you can find the period form (repeated period in the side part of the finale of Beethoven's First Piano Sonata, in the slow part of his Seventh Sonata), three-movement forms (in Tchaikovsky's Fifth and Sixth Symphonies).

The FINAL PARTY, which affirms the tonality of the secondary part, introduces a contradiction between the final character of the music and the tonal openness of the major section, making the further flow of the musical form logically necessary. In terms of meaning, the final game can refer directly to a side game, or to the entire exposition. In classical music, the final parts are usually laconic. For them, repeated cadence is typical. Thematic material can be independent (embossed or background) or be based on elements of topics that have already been heard. Later, the length of the final parties sometimes increases (in some of Schubert's sonatas, for example) and becomes tonally independent.

A strong tradition in classical and later music has been the repetition of the sonata exposition. Therefore, in the first volta of the final part, there was often a return to the main key. Of course, exposition is not always repeated in classical music either (it is not, for example, in some of Beethoven's late sonatas; exposition, as a rule, is not repeated in sonata forms at a slow tempo).

DEVELOPMENT - a very free section on the use of thematic material, methods of development, tonal plan, structural dissection and length. A common feature of the developments is AMPLIFICATION OF THE TONAL-HARMONIC INSTABILITY. Quite often, developments begin with the development of the "extreme" thematic and tonal points of the exposition - with the development of elements of either the main or the final part in the key of the end of the exposition, the same name to it, or the same name to the main key. Along with developmental development, variant and variant-continuing developments are often used, as if new themes appear, set forth, often in the form of a modulating period (see the developments of the first parts of the Fifth and Ninth Piano Sonatas by Beethoven). The development can develop both the entire thematic material of the exposition, and, mainly, one theme or thematic element (half of the development of Mozart's Ninth Piano Sonata K-311 is based on the development of the last motif of the final part). Quite typical is the imitative-polyphonic development of thematic elements, as well as the integration of elements of different themes into one. The development tonal plans are very diverse and can be systemically built (according to the keys of a tertiary ratio, for example) or free. Quite typical is the avoidance of the main key and the general omission of the modal color. Developments can be merged or divided into several caesuraly demarcated constructions (usually two or three). The length of development varies widely, but the minimum is one third of the exposure.

Many developments end with predicates, often very lengthy ones. Their harmonic structure is not limited to the dominant predicate, but can be much more complex, affecting a number of keys. A typical feature of the pre-verse section is the absence of relief melodic elements, the “exposing” and forcing harmonic energy, which makes one expect further musical “events”.

Due to the peculiarities of the onset of a reprise, it can be perceived with more or less naturalness or surprise.

Unlike other homophonic forms, sonata recapitulation cannot be exact. At a minimum, it contains changes to the tonal plan of the exposure. The side part, as a rule, is performed in the main key, preserving or changing the expositional modal coloring. Sometimes a side part can sound in a subdominant key. Along with tonal changes in the reprise, variant development may occur, affecting to a greater extent the main and connecting parts. With regard to the length of these sections, both their reduction and expansion can occur. Similar changes are possible in the side batch, but they are less common; for the side batch, variant-variational changes are more typical.

There are also specific variants of sonata reprises. This is a MIRROR reprise in which the main and side parts are reversed, after the side part that starts the reprise, the main part usually follows, after which the final part follows. The abbreviated reprise is limited to the side and final parts. On the one hand, the abbreviated reprise is, as it were, a legacy of the old sonata form, where the actual tonal reprise coincided with the sound of the side part in the main key. However, in classical music, the abbreviated reprise is quite rare. Such an abridged reprise can be found in all of Chopin's piano and sonatas for cello and piano.

In classical music, it is not uncommon to repeat and develop with a reprise together. But this tradition turned out to be less durable than the repetition of the exposition. The effectiveness of the sonata reprise, the change in the semantic correlation of thematic sections, the dramatic interpretation of the sonata form deprive the repetition of the development with the reprise of organic naturalness.

CODES in sonata form can be very diverse, both in terms of thematic material and in length (from a few bars to extended constructions comparable to the size of the development).

In the process of the historical development of the sonata form, a tendency of its individualization is revealed, which has been clearly manifested since the era of romanticism (Schumann, Schubert, Chopin). Here, perhaps, there are two directions: "dramatic" (Schumann, Chopin, Liszt. Tchaikovsky, Mahler, Shostakovich) and "epic" (Schubert, Borodin, Hindemith, Prokofiev). In the "epic" interpretation of sonata - the plurality of thematics, the slowness of deployment, variant-variational methods of development

VARIETY OF SONATA FORM

Of the three varieties (sonata form without elaboration, sonata form with an episode instead of elaboration, and sonata form with double exposition), the latter has received historically and genre limited use, occurring almost exclusively in the first parts of classical concertos for solo instruments and orchestra. Mendelssohn is the first to abandon double exposition sonata form in his Violin Concerto. Since then, it has ceased to be "mandatory" in the first parts of the concertos, although it is found in later music (as, for example, in Dvořák's Cello Concerto written in 1900).

The first, orchestral exposition is combined with the INTRODUCTION function, which often determines the great brevity, “conciseness” of the thematic material, the frequent “irregularity” of the tonal plan (the side part can sound in the main key, or at least return to the main key by the time of the final part. The second exposition with the participation of the soloist, as a rule, is supplemented by new thematic material, often in all sections of the exposition, which is especially typical for Mozart's concertos. In his concertos, the second exposition is often much more detailed than the first. In Beethoven's concertos orchestral expositions are larger, but the renewal of thematic material is also noticeable in them (for example, in the Second Concerto for Piano and Orchestra, the duration of the orchestral exposition is 89 measures, the second exposition - 124).In this variety of sonata form, a smoother transition to development. finds significant differences from the usual sonata form to the end of the reprise or coda, where during the general pause of the orchestra, the soloist's CADENCE unfolds, a virtuoso development-fantasy of the themes sounded. Before Beethoven, cadenzas were mostly not written down, but improvised by the soloist (who was also the composer of the music). The "separation" of the professions of performer and composer, which became more and more noticeable at the beginning of the 19th century, sometimes led to a complete thematic alienation of the cadenza, to a demonstration of "acrobatic" virtuosity that had little to do with the thematic nature of the concerto. In all Beethoven's concertos, the cadenzas are author's. He also wrote cadenzas for a number of Mozart's concertos. For many Mozart concertos, there are cadenzas by different authors, offered by the choice of performer (Beethoven cadenzas, D , Albert and others).

SONATA FORM WITHOUT DEVELOPMENT is found quite often in music of the most diverse nature. In slow lyrical music, variational development of thematics often occurs. In the music of the active movement, the elaboration "seeps" into the exposition and reprise (developed, "developmental" connecting parts, the fracture zone in the side part), and also shifts into the coda. Between the exposition (it is often repeated in classical music of fast movement) and the reprise, there may be a developmental link, less than a third of the exposition in length. Its presence is largely due to the tonal plan (if the side and final parts do not sound in the key of the dominant). In some cases, the final part directly develops into a bundle (as, for example, in the overtures to The Barber of Seville and Rossini's The Thieving Magpie). This version of the sonata form (without development) can be found as any part of the sonata-symphony cycle, opera overtures and individual works. In orchestral music, there are sometimes introductions (in the overture to Rossini's The Barber of Seville, for example).

SONATA FORM WITH EPISODE INSTEAD OF DEVELOPMENT

In this variant of the sonata form, undoubtedly, the influence of a complex three-part form, the introduction of a bright contrast of large sections, is revealed. There is also a connection with different variants of a complex three-part form. Thus, in sonata form with an episode, instead of developing at a fast pace, the episode usually resembles a TRIO of a complex three-movement form with tonal independence and structural completeness (as, for example, in the finale of Beethoven's First Piano Sonata). In slow music - an EPISODE of a complex three-part form - tonal-harmonic and structural openness (as, for example, in the second part of Mozart's piano sonata K-310). A structurally closed episode is usually followed by a developmental connection or a small development (in the finale of Beethoven's First Sonata, for example). In some cases, there is an episode that goes beyond simple forms (in the first part of Shostakovich's Seventh Symphony - variations on soprano ostinato). This version of the sonata form is used similarly to others - in parts of sonata-symphony cycles, opera overtures and individual works.

RONDO SONATA

In the RONDO-SONATA both formative principles are in a state of DYNAMIC BALANCE, which creates a large number of variations. The rondo-like nature usually influences the genre nature of the thematic, song-dance, scherzo. As a result of this - structural completeness - the main parts are quite often simple forms, often with their typical repetition of parts. The dominance of rondality can manifest itself in underdeveloped and brief side parts (as in the finale of Beethoven's Ninth Piano Sonata, for example). The exposition is followed by an EPISODE, often structurally closed, or TWO EPISODES, separated by the performance of the main part. With dominant sonata, as a rule, the exposition contains extended connecting parts, several themes of a side part, a fracture zone in them, after the exposition follows DEVELOPMENT, development processes are also possible in codes. In many cases, a parity ratio of both principles occurs, and after the exposure in the next section, the features of the development and the episode are mixed. Less common is the “REDUCED” version of the rondo sonata, consisting of an exposition and a mirror reprise. A link between them is possible (the finale of Mozart's piano sonata in C minor K-457).

Let's move on to the consideration of the exposition, which differs markedly from the sonata. In the rondo sonata, it is thematically and tonally closed, ending with the MAIN PART IN THE MAIN KEY (its ending can be open and serve as a flexible transition to the next section). In this regard, the function of the final game is changed. Its beginning establishes the key of the side part, and the continuation returns to the main key, leading to the final exposition of the main part. In Mozart's rondo sonatas, as a rule, the final parties are very developed; in Beethoven, the final parties are sometimes absent (as in the finale of the ninth sonata, for example). The exposition of the rondo-sonata NEVER IS REPEATED (the repetition of the sonata exposition is historically preserved for a very long time).

In the reprise of the rondo sonata, both performances of the main part can be preserved with a change in the tonal ratios typical of the sonata reprise. However, one of the leading parties may be skipped. If the second performance of the main part is omitted, the usual sonata reprise is formed. If the first performance of the main part is omitted, a MIRROR REPRISE is formed (in the rondo sonata it occurs more often than in the sonata form). KODA is an unregulated section and can be any.

The rondo-sonata form is most often found in the finals of sonata-symphony cycles. It is the rondo sonata that happens under the genre designation RONDO. The rondo sonata is less common in individual works (Duc's symphonic scherzo "The Sorcerer's Apprentice", for example, or non-sonata cycles (the second part of the Song and Myaskovsky's rhapsodies). If we arrange the variants of the rondo sonata according to the degree of prevalence, we get the following row: rondo sonata with an EPISODE , rondo sonata with DEVELOPMENT, rondo sonata with MIXED FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENT AND EPISODE, rondo sonata with TWO EPISODES (or with an episode and development, in one sequence or another), an "abbreviated" rondo sonata.

The exposition of the rondo sonata in the finale of Prokofiev's Sixth Piano Sonata is very individually constructed. The main part appears after each of the three themes of the side part, forming a free rondo (in the reprise, the side parts sound in a row).

CYCLIC FORMS

Cyclic forms are called forms that consist of several, as a rule, independent in terms of thematic and shaping parts, separated by unregulated pauses that interrupt the flow of musical time (double bar line with a “thick” right line). All cyclic forms embody a more diverse and multifaceted content, united by an artistic concept.

Some cyclical forms in the most generalized form embody the worldview concept, the mass, for example, is theocentric, later the sonata-symphony cycle is anthropocentric.

The basic principle of the organization of cyclic forms is CONTRAST, THE EXPRESSION OF WHICH IS HISTORICALLY VARIABLE AND AFFECTS DIFFERENT MEANS OF MUSICAL EXPRESSION.

Cyclic forms became widespread in the Baroque era (late 16th - early 17th centuries). They are very diverse: two-movement cycles with fugue, concerti grossi, concertos for a solo instrument with an orchestra, suites, partitas, solo and ensemble sonatas.

The roots of many cyclical forms lie in two types of 17th-century opera overtures, the so-called French (Lulli) and Italian (A. Stradella, A. Scarlatti), using typified tempo contrasts. In the French overture, the most significant was the ratio of the first slow section (of a solemn pathetic character) and the fast polyphonic second (usually fugue), sometimes ending with a short Adagio (sometimes based on the material of the first section). This type of tempo relationship, when repeated, becomes quite typical of ensemble sonatas and concerti grossi, usually consisting of 4 movements. In the concerti grossi of Corelli, Vivaldi, Handel, the function of the introduction is quite clearly expressed in the first movements. It develops not only due to the slow pace, relatively small length, but also due to the harmonic openness that sometimes occurs.

6 Brandenburg concertos by J.S. stand apart. Bach (1721), in which all the first parts are not only written at a fast pace, but are the most developed, extended, determining the further deployment of cycles. Such a function of the first parts (with a difference in internal form formation) anticipates the function of the 1st part in the later sonata-symphony cycle.

The influence of this type of tempo ratios is somewhat less noticeable in suites and partitas close to them. In the ratio of “mandatory” dances, there is a repetitive and intensifying tempo-rhythmic contrast: a moderately slow two-part allemande is replaced by a moderately fast three-part chimes, a very slow three-part sarabande is replaced by a very fast gigue (usually in six, twelve-part sizes, combining two and three-part). These cycles, however, are quite free in terms of the number of parts. Often there are introductory parts (prelude, prelude and fugue, fantasy, sinfonia), and between the sarabande and gigue were placed the so-called "inserted", more modern dances (gavotte, minuet, bure, rigaudon, lur, musette) and arias. Often there were two insert dances (especially typical for minuets and gavottes), at the end of the second there was an indication that the first was to be repeated. Bach retained all the "obligatory" dances in his suites, other composers treated them more freely, including only one or two of them.

In partitas, where all the "mandatory" dances are often preserved, the genre range of inserted numbers is much wider, for example, rondo, capriccio, burlesque.

In principle, in a suite (row) dances are equal, there is no functional diversity. However, certain features are starting to take shape. Thus, the sarabande becomes the lyrical center of the suite. It is very different from the restrained-severe, heavy-solemn everyday prototype in its sublime tenderness, sophistication, textured grace, and sound in the medium-high register. Often, it is the sarabandes that have ornamental doubles, which enhances its function as a lyrical center. In the gigue (the most "common" in origin - the dance of English sailors), the fastest in tempo, thanks to energy, mass character, active polyphony, the final function is formed.

The tempo ratios of the ITALIAN OVERTURE, which included three sections (extreme - fast, polyphonic, middle - slow, melodious), turn into three-part cycles of concerts for a solo instrument (less often, for two, three soloists) with an orchestra. Despite the changes in form, the three-movement concert cycle remained stable in general outline from the 17th century until the Romantic era. The active, competitive character of the first movements is undoubtedly very close to the classical sonata allegro.

A special place is occupied by two-part cycles with a fugue, where the fundamental contrast is in different types of musical thinking: more free, improvisational, sometimes more homophonic in the first parts (prelude, toccata, fantasy) and more strictly logically organized in fugues. Tempo ratios are very diverse and cannot be typified.

The formation of the sonata-symphonic cycle was significantly influenced by the first parts of the concertos for a solo instrument and orchestra (future sonata Allegri symphonies), lyrical sarabandes of suites (prototypes of symphonic Andanti), active, energetic giggles (prototype of finales). To a certain extent, the symphonies also show the influence of the Concerti grossi with their slow opening movements. Many symphonies of the Viennese classics begin with slow introductions of various lengths (especially in Haydn). The influence of the suites is also evident in the presence of a minuet before the finale. But the substantive concept and functional definiteness of the parts in the sonata-symphony cycle is different. The content of the suite, which was defined as the VARIETY OF UNITY, in the sonata-symphonic cycle can be formulated as the UNITY OF VARIETY. Parts of the sonata-symphony cycle are much more rigidly functionally coordinated. The genre and semantic roles of the parts reflect the main facets of human existence: action (Homo agens), contemplation, reflection (Homo sapiens), rest, play (Homo ludens), a person in society (Homo communis).

The symphonic cycle has a closed tempo profile based on the LEAP WITH FILLING principle. The semantic opposition between the Allegri of the first movements and Andanti is emphasized not only by a sharp tempo ratio, but also, as a rule, by a tonal contrast.

Symphonic and chamber cycles before Beethoven differed markedly from each other. By virtue of performing means (orchestra), the symphony has always assumed a kind of "publicity", akin to a theatrical performance. Chamber works are distinguished by great diversity and freedom, which brings them closer to narrative literary genres (conditionally, of course), to greater personal "intimacy", lyricism. Quartets are closest to the symphony, other ensembles (trios, quintets of different compositions) are not so numerous and, often, closer to a freer suite, as well as divertissements, serenades and other genres of orchestral music.

In piano and ensemble sonatas, as a rule, there are 2-3 movements. In the first parts, the sonata form is most common (always in symphonies), but other forms are also found (complex three-part, variations, Haydn and Mozart's rondo, Beethoven's variations, for example).

The main sections of the first movements of the symphonies are always in Allegro tempo. In chamber sonatas, the Allegro tempo designation is also very frequent, but there are also more leisurely tempo designations. In solo and chamber sonatas, it is not uncommon to combine functional genre roles within one movement (lyrical and dance, dance and finale, for example). In terms of content, these cycles are more diverse, they become, as it were, a "laboratory" for the further development of cycles. For example, the scherzo genre appears for the first time in Haydn's piano sonatas. Later, scherzo will become a full-fledged part of the sonata-symphony cycle, almost replacing the minuet. Scherzo embodies the wider semantic element of the game (from everyday playfulness to the play of cosmic forces, as in Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, for example). If Haydn and Mozart do not have four-movement sonatas, then Beethoven's early piano sonatas already use the tempo and genre relationships typical of symphonies.

In the further historical development of the sonata-symphony cycle (beginning with Beethoven), there is a “branching” (with common “roots”) into a “traditional” branch, which renews the content from the inside and is more radical, “innovative”. In the "traditional" there is an increase in lyrical, epic images, genre detailing is often introduced (romance, waltz, elegy, etc.), but the traditional number of parts and semantic roles are preserved. In connection with the new content (lyrical, epic), the first parts lose their rapidity of pace, retaining the intensity of the procedural deployment and the significance of the part that determines the entire cycle. Therefore, the scherzo becomes the second part, shifting the general contrast deep into the cycle, between the slow part (the most personal) and the fast mass finale, which gives the cycle unfolding a greater aspiration (the ratio of the minuet and the finale, often also dance-like, is more one-dimensional, reducing the attention of listeners).

In classical symphonies, the first parts are most typified in terms of form (the sonata and its varieties, the greater variety of forms of the first parts of chamber sonatas was mentioned above). In the minuets and scherzos, the complex three-part form decisively predominates (of course, not without exceptions). The slow movements (simple and complex forms, variations, rondo, sonata in all varieties) and finals (sonata with varieties, variations, rondo, rondo-sonata, sometimes complex three-part) are distinguished by the greatest variety of shaping.

In French music of the 19th century, a type of three-part symphony developed, where the functions of slow (extreme sections) and dance-scherzo (middle) are combined in the second parts. Such are the symphonies of David, Lalo, Franck, Bizet.

In the "innovative" branch (once again it is necessary to recall the commonality of the "roots"), the changes are outwardly more noticeable. Often they occur under the influence of programming (Beethoven's Sixth Symphony, "Fantastic", "Harold in Italy", Berlioz's "Funeral-Triumphal" Symphony), unusual performing compositions and ideas (Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Mahler's Second, Third, Fourth Symphonies. May arise "doubling" parts, in a row or symmetrically (some of Mahler's symphonies, Tchaikovsky's Third Symphony, Scriabin's Second Symphony, some of Shostakovich's symphonies), synthesis of different genres (symphony-cantata, symphony-concert).

By the middle of the 19th century, the sonata-symphony cycle acquires the significance of the most conceptual genre, causing a reverent attitude towards itself, which leads to a certain quantitative decrease in sonata-symphony cycles. But there is another reason associated with romantic aesthetics, which sought to capture the uniqueness of every moment. Nevertheless, the versatility of being can be realized only by a cyclic form. This function is successfully performed by the new suite, which is distinguished by extraordinary flexibility and freedom (but not anarchy), capturing contrasts in all their diversity of manifestations. Quite often, suites are created on the basis of music of other genres (for dramatic performances, opera and ballet, and later on the basis of music for films). New suites are diverse in terms of performing compositions (orchestral, solo, ensemble), can be program and non-program. The new suite is widely used in the music of the 19th and 20th centuries. The word "suite" may not be used in the title ("Butterflies", "Carnival", Kreisleriana, Fantastic Pieces, Vienna Carnival, Album for Youth and other works by Schumann, Tchaikovsky's Seasons, Pictures from Mussorgsky's exhibition). Many opuses of miniatures (preludes, mazurkas, nocturnes, etudes) are essentially similar to the new suite.

The new suite gravitates towards two poles - a cycle of miniatures, and a symphony (both Grieg's suites from the music for Ibsen's drama "Peer Gynt", "Scheherazade" and "Antar" by Rimsky-Korsakov, for example).

The vocal cycles are close in organization to it, both “plotted” (“The Beautiful Miller’s Woman” by Schubert, “The Love and Life of a Woman” by Schumann), and generalized (“The Winter Journey” by Schubert, “The Love of the Poet” by Schumann), as well as choral cycles and some cantatas.

Often in baroque music, as well as in classical and later music, it is not always possible to determine the number of parts, since the note attacca, which occurs quite often, does not interrupt the flow of perceptual musical time. Also, it often happens that music that is independent in terms of thematic and, to a large extent, in terms of shaping, is divided by two thin bar lines (Sinphonia from Bach's Partita in C minor, Mozart's Sonata for violin and piano in A minor /K-402/, Fantasia in C minor /K -457/, Beethoven's Sonatas for Cello and Piano op.69, op.102 No.1 and many other works by different authors), which leads to the formation of individual (free) forms. They can be called contrast-composite (V.V. Protopopov's term) or fused-cyclic.

The performance of individual parts from cyclic works is allowed, but the cycles as a whole are united by an ARTISTIC DESIGN, THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WHICH IS CARRIED OUT BY MUSICAL MEANS.

Unity can manifest itself in a generalized way: through tempo, figurative echoes of parts, similar harmonic principles, tonal plan, structure, meter-rhythmic organization, intonational connections in all parts and, especially, in the extreme ones. This type of unity is GENERAL MUSICAL. IT DEVELOPED IN THE CYCLIC FORMS OF THE BAROQUE and is a necessary condition for the artistic usefulness of the cyclic forms of any era.

But the unity of the cycle can be carried out more clearly and concretely: with the help of cross-cutting musical themes, reminiscences, or, much less often, precursors. This type of unity developed in the process of development and complication of the forms of instrumental music, first appearing in Beethoven (in the Fifth, Ninth symphonies, some sonatas and quartets). On the one hand, the THEMATIC principle of unity (detailed by M.K. Mikhailov in the article “On the thematic unification of the sonata-symphony cycle” // Questions of the theory and aesthetics of music: issue 2. - M .: S.K., 1963) arises as “ condensation”, the concentration of intonational connections, on the other hand, one can detect the influence of program music and, in part, leitmotif operatic dramaturgy.

The thematic principle of unity to some extent violates such a feature of cyclic forms as the independence of the thematism of parts, without affecting the independence of form formation (the transfer of topics, as a rule, occurs in unregulated sections of forms - in introductions and codes, mainly). In further historical development, the thematic principle of unity grew into a deductive one, in which the shaping of individual parts more directly depends on the overall figurative-content and compositional design of the cycle. The thematism of the previous parts actively influences the shaping of the subsequent ones, participating in their main sections (in developments, for example), or causes modulation in the form, transformation of the stereotype.

Some questions of harmonic analysis

1. Significance of harmonic analysis.

Harmonic analysis makes it easier to establish and maintain a direct connection with live musical creativity; helps to realize that the techniques and norms of voice leading recommended in harmony are not only educational and training, but also artistic and aesthetic; provides quite specific and varied material for demonstrating the basic methods of voice leading and the most important laws of harmonic development; helps to learn the main features of the harmonic language and individual outstanding composers and entire schools (directions); convincingly shows the historical evolution in the methods and norms of using these chords, revolutions, cadences, modulations, etc.; brings you closer to being guided in the style norms of the harmonic language; leads, ultimately, to an understanding of the general nature of music, brings it closer to the content (within the limits that are available to harmony).

2. Types of harmonic analysis.

a) the ability to correctly and accurately explain a given harmonic fact (chord, voicing, cadence);

b) the ability to understand and harmonically generalize this passage (the logic of functional movement, the relationship of cadences, the definition of tonality, the interdependence of melody and harmony, etc.);

c) the ability to connect all the essential features of the harmonic warehouse with the nature of the music, with the development of the form and with the individual characteristics of the harmonic language of a given work, composer or a whole direction (school).

3. Basic methods of harmonic analysis.

1. Determining the main key of a given piece of music (or its passage); to find out all other keys that appear in the process of development of this work (sometimes this task is somewhat removed).

Determining the main key is not always a fairly elementary task, as one might assume at first glance. Not all pieces of music begin with the tonic; sometimes with D, S, DD, "Neapolitan harmony", from an organ point to D, etc., or a whole group of harmonies of a non-tonic function (see R. Schumann, op. 23 No. 4; Chopin, Prelude No. 2, etc. .). In more rare cases, the work even begins immediately with a deviation (L. Beethoven, "Moonlight Sonata", part II; 1st symphony, part I; F. Chopin, Mazurka in E minor, op. 41 No. 2, etc.). d.). In some works, the tonality is shown quite difficult (L. Beethoven, sonata in C major, op. 53, part II) or the appearance of the tonic is delayed for a very long time (F. Chopin, prelude in A-flat major, op. 17; A. Scriabin, prelude in A minor, op. 11 and E major, op. 11; S. Taneyev, cantata "After reading the psalm" - beginning; piano quartet, op. 30 - introduction, etc.). In special cases, a clear, distinct attraction to the tonic of a given key is given in harmony, but in essence all functions are shown, except for the tonic (for example, R. Wagner, the introduction to the opera "Tristan and Isolde" and the death of Isolde; N. Rimsky-Korsakov, the beginning overture to "May Night"; P. Tchaikovsky, "I bless you, forests", beginning; A. Lyadov "Sorrowful Song"; S. Rachmaninov, 3rd concerto for piano, part II; S. Lyapunov, romances op. 51; A. Scriabin, prelude op. 11 No. 2). Finally, in many classical adaptations of Russian songs, sometimes the key designation of tonality goes beyond traditional norms and follows the specifics of the mode, why, for example, Dorian G minor can have one flat in the designation, Phrygian F-sharp minor - two sharps, Mixolydian G major is written without any signs, etc.

Note. These features of the key designation are also found in other composers who appeal to the materials of folk art (E. Grieg, B. Bartok, etc.).

Having found out the main key and then other keys that appear in this work, they determine the general tonal plan and its functional features. The definition of the tonal plan creates a prerequisite for understanding the logic in the sequence of keys, which is especially important in large-scale works.

The definition of the main key, of course, is combined with the simultaneous characterization of the mode, the general modal structure, since these phenomena are organically interconnected. Particular difficulties, however, arise when analyzing samples with a complex, synthetic type, modal basis (for example, R Wagner, introduction to Act II of "Parsifal", "Dreams", R Schumann, "Grillen", N Rimsky-Korsakov, "Sadko" , 2nd scene, excerpts from "Kashchei"; S Prokofiev, "Sarcasms", etc.), or when changing the mode or key at the end of the work (for example, M Balakirev, "Whisper, timid breathing"; F Liszt, "Spanish Rhapsody "; F Chopin, ballad No. 2, G Wolf, "The moon rose very gloomy today"; F Chopin, mazurkas D-flat major, B minor, op.30; And Brahms, Rhapsody E-flat major; S Taneyev, "Minuet "etc.) Such changes in either mode or tonality must be explained as far as possible, their regularity or logic must be understood in connection with the general or development of a given work, or in connection with the content of the text.

2. The next point in the analysis is cadences: the types of cadences are studied and determined, their relationship is established in the presentation and development of the work. It is most expedient to begin such a study with an initial, expositional construction (usually a period); but this should not be limited.

When the analyzed work goes beyond the period (the theme of variations, the main part of the rondo, independent two- or three-part forms, etc.), it is necessary not only to determine the cadenzas in the reprise construction, but also to compare them harmoniously with the expositional part. This will help to understand how cadences can generally be differentiated to emphasize stability or instability, complete or partial completeness, connection or delimitation of constructions, as well as to enrich harmony, change the nature of music, etc.

If a work has a clear middle (connection), then it must be established by what harmonic means the instability characteristic of the middles is supported (such as: emphasis on half cadences, stop on D, organ point on D or tonal unstable sequences, interrupted cadences, etc.). P.).

Thus, this or that independent study of cadences must necessarily be combined with consideration of their role in harmonious development (dynamics) and form formation. For conclusions, it is essential to pay attention both to the individual harmonic features of the theme (or themes) itself and to the specifics of its modal-functional structure (for example, it is necessary to specifically take into account the features of major, minor, variable mode, major-minor, etc.), since all these harmonic moments are closely linked and interdependent. Such linkage acquires the greatest importance in the analysis of works of a large form, with a contrasting ratio of its parts and themes and their harmonic presentation.

3. Then it is desirable to focus attention in the analysis on the simplest moments of coordination (subordination) of melodic and harmonic development.

To do this, the main melody-theme (initially within the framework of the period) is analyzed structurally independently, unanimously - its character, dissection, completeness, functional pattern, etc. are determined. Then it is revealed how these structural and expressive qualities of the melody are reinforced by harmony. Particular attention should be paid to the climax in the development of the theme and its harmonic design. Recall that, for example, in the Viennese classics, the climax usually falls on the second sentence of the period and is associated with the first appearance of the subdominant chord (this enhances the brightness of the climax) (see L Beethoven, Largo appassionato from the sonata op. 2 No. 2, II part from the sonata op. .22, theme of the finale of the Pathetique Sonata, op.13, etc.).

In other, more complex cases, when the subdominant is somehow shown even in the first sentence, the climax, in order to increase the overall tension, is harmonized differently (for example, DD, S and DVII7 with a bright delay, Neapolitan chord, III low, etc.). For example, let us refer to the famous Largo e mesto from Beethoven's sonata in D major, op. 10, No. 3, in which the climax of the theme (in the period) is given on a bright consonance DD. Without explanation, it is clear that such a design of the climax is also preserved in works or sections of a larger form (see L. Beethoven, indicated by Largo appassionato from sonata op. 2 No. 2 - a two-part construction of the main theme, or the deepest Adagio - II part from sonata L Beethoven in D minor, op.31 No. 2)
It is natural that such a bright, harmonically convex interpretation of culminations (both main and local) by continuity passed into the creative traditions of subsequent masters (R. Schumann, F. Chopin, P. Tchaikovsky, S. Taneyev, S. Rachmaninov) and provided many magnificent samples (see the amazing apotheosis of love in the conclusion of the 2nd picture of "Eugene Onegin" by P. Tchaikovsky, a side theme from the finale of the 6th symphony of P. Tchaikovsky, the end of the first act of "The Tsar's Bride" by N.R. -K o r s a ko in a Ypres.).
4. In a detailed harmonic analysis of a given chord sequence (at least within a simple period), it is necessary to fully understand what chords are given here, in what inversions, in what alternation, doubling, at what enrichment with non-chord dissonances, etc. At the same time, it is desirable to generalize how early and often the tonic is shown, how widely unstable functions are presented, with what gradualness and regularity the change of chords (functions) takes place, which is accentuated in the display of various modes and keys.
Of course, here it is also important to consider voice leading, that is, to check and realize the melodic meaningfulness and expressiveness in the movement of individual voices; understand - for example - the features of the location and doubling of consonances (see the romance of N. Medtner, "Whisper, timid breathing" - the middle); explain why full, polyphonic chords are suddenly replaced by unison (L. Beethoven, sonata op. 26, “Funeral March”); why the three-voice systematically alternates with the four-voice (L. Beethoven, Moonlight Sonata, op. 27 No. 2, part II); what is the reason for the register transfer of the theme (L. Beethoven, sonata in F major, op. 54, h, I, etc.).
In-depth attention to voice leading will help students to feel and understand the beauty and naturalness of any combination of chords in the works of the classics and develop a demanding taste for voice leading, because outside of voice leading music - in essence - is not created. With such attention to voicing, it is useful to follow the movement of the bass: it can either move in jumps along the main sounds of chords (“fundamental basses”), or more smoothly, melodicly, both diatonically and chromatically; the bass can also intotone more thematically significant turns (general, complementary and contrasting). All this is very important for harmonic presentation.
5. In harmonic analysis, register features are also noted, that is, the choice of one register or another, associated with the general nature of this work. Although the register is not a purely harmonic concept, the register has a serious impact on the general harmonic norms or methods of presentation. It is known that chords in high and low registers are arranged and doubled differently, that sustained sounds in middle voices are used more limitedly than in bass, that register “breaks” in the presentation of chords are undesirable (“ugly”) in general, that the methods for resolving dissonances change somewhat during register changes. It is clear that the choice and preferential use of a certain register is connected primarily with the nature of a musical work, its genre, tempo, and intended texture. Therefore, in works that are small and mobile, such as the scherzo, humoresque, fairy tale, caprice, one can see the predominance of the middle and high registers and, in general, observe a freer and more varied use of various registers, sometimes with bright shifts (see L. Beethoven, scherzo from the sonata op. 2 No. 2 - the main theme). In works such as elegy, romance, song, nocturne, funeral march, serenade, etc., register colors are usually more limited and rely more often on the middle, most melodious and expressive register (L. Beethoven, Part II of the Pathetique Sonata; R Schumann, middle part in "Intermezzo" of the piano concerto; R. Gliere, Concerto for voice and orchestra, part I; P. Tchaikovsky, Andantecantabile.op.il).
For everyone, it is obvious that it is impossible to transfer music like A. Lyadov’s “Musical Snuffbox” into the low register or, conversely, into the upper register of music like L. Beethoven’s “Funeral March” from the sonata op. 26 - without sharp and absurd distortions of the images and character of the music. This provision should determine the real importance and effectiveness of taking into account register features in harmonic analysis (let's name a number of useful examples - L. Beethoven, sonata "Appassionata", part II; F. Chopin, scherzo from the sonata in B-flat minor; E. Grieg, scherzo in E minor, op.54, A. Borodin, “At the monastery”, F. Liszt, “Funeral procession”). Sometimes, in order to repeat a given theme or passage of it, bold register jumps (“flipping”) are introduced into those sections of the form where previously there was only smooth movement. Typically, such a register-varied presentation takes on the character of a joke, scherzo or provocativeness, which, for example, can be seen in the last five bars of Andante from the Sonata in G Major (No. 10) by L. Beethoven.
6. In analysis, one cannot ignore the question of the frequency of changes of harmonies (in other words, of harmonic pulsation). Harmonic pulsation largely determines the general rhythmic sequence of harmonies or the type of harmonic movement characteristic of a given work. First of all, the harmonic pulsation is determined by the nature, tempo and genre of the analyzed musical work.
Usually, at a slow tempo, the harmonies change on any (even the weakest) beats of the bar, rely less clearly on the metro rhythm and give more scope to the melody, cantilena. In some cases, with rare changes in harmony in pieces of the same slow movement, the melody acquires a special pattern, freedom of presentation, even recitativity (see F. Chopin, nocturnes in B-flat minor, F-sharp major).
Fast-tempo pieces usually give a change of harmonies on strong beats of a measure, while in some examples of dance music, the harmonies change only in each measure, and sometimes even after two measures or more (waltzes, mazurkas). If a very fast melody is accompanied by a change of harmonies on almost every sound, then here only some harmonies acquire an independent meaning, while others should be considered rather as passing or auxiliary harmonies (L. Beethoven, trio from the scherzo in A major in the sonata op 2 No. 2, P Schumann, "Symphonic etudes", variation-etude No. 9).
The study of harmonic pulsation brings us closer to understanding the main features of accentuation of live musical speech and live performance. In addition, various changes in harmonic pulsation (its slowdown, acceleration) can be easily associated with issues of form development, harmonic variation or general dynamization of harmonic presentation.
7. The next moment of analysis is non-chord sounds both in the melody and in the accompanying voices. The types of non-chord sounds, their interrelation, methods of voice leading, features of melodic and rhythmic contrast, dialogic (duet) forms in harmonic presentation, enrichment of harmonies, etc. are determined.
Special consideration deserves the dynamic and expressive qualities that non-chord dissonances bring to harmonic presentation.
Since the most expressive of the non-chord sounds are the delays, so much attention is paid to them.
When analyzing diverse samples of detentions, it is necessary to carefully determine their meter-rhythmic conditions, interval environment, brightness of functional conflict, register, their location in relation to melodic movement (climax) and expressive properties (see, for example, P. Tchaikovsky, Lensky's arioso "How happy" and the beginning of the second scene of the opera "Eugene Onegin", the finale of the 6th symphony - in D major).

When analyzing harmonic sequences with passing and auxiliary sounds, students pay attention to their melodic role, the need to resolve the “accompanying” dissonances that form here, the possibility of enriching harmony with “random” (and altered) combinations on weak beats of the measure, conflicts with delays, etc. (see R. Wagner, introduction to "Tristan"; P. Tchaikovsky, Triquet's couplets from the opera "Eugene Onegin"; duet of Oksana and Solokha from "Cherevichki"; theme of love from "The Queen of Spades"; S. Taneyev, symphony in C minor, II part).
The expressive qualities brought into harmony by non-chord sounds acquire a special naturalness and liveliness in the so-called "duet" forms of presentation. Let us refer to several samples: L. Beethoven, Largo appassionato from the sonata op. 2 No. 2, Andante from Sonata No. 10, 2nd movement (and in it the second variation); P. Tchaikovsky, nocturne in C-sharp minor (reprise); E. Grieg, "Anitra's Dance" (reprise), etc.
When considering examples of the use of non-chord sounds of all categories in simultaneous sounding, their important role is emphasized in harmonic variation, in enhancing the cantileverness and expressiveness of the general voice leading and in maintaining thematic richness and integrity in the line of each of the voices (see Oksana's aria in A minor from the fourth act of the opera N. Rimsky-Korsakov "The Night Before Christmas").
8. Difficult in harmonic analysis is the question of changing keys (modulation). The logic of the general process of modulation can also be analyzed here, otherwise - the logic in the functional sequence of changing keys, and the general tonal plan, and its modal-constructive properties (recall the concept of S.I. Taneev about the tonal basis).
In addition, it is desirable to understand on specific samples the difference between modulation from deviation and from matching tonalities (in other words, a tonal jump). Here it is also useful to clarify the specifics of “comparison with the result”, using the term of B. L. Yavorsky (we will indicate examples: many connecting parts in the sonata expositions of W. Mozart and early L. Beethoven; F. Chopin’s scherzo in B-flat minor, exceptionally convincing preparation of E major at the conclusion of the second scene of The Queen of Spades by P. Tchaikovsky).
The analysis must then truly substantiate the characteristic type of deviation inherent in the various sections of the musical work. The study of modulations proper should show the typical features of exposition constructions, the characteristic features of modulation in the middles and developments (usually the most distant and free) and in reprises (here they are sometimes distant, but within the framework of a broadly interpreted subdominant function).

It is very interesting and useful in the analysis to understand the general dynamics of the modulation process, when it is rather convexly outlined. Usually the whole process of modulation can be divided into two parts, different in length and tension - leaving a given key and returning to it (sometimes also to the main key of the work).
If the first half of the modulation is longer in scale, then it is also simpler in terms of harmony (see the modulation from A-flat to D in the "Funeral March" from the sonata op. 26 by L. Beethoven or the modulation from A to G-sharp , from L. Beethoven's scherzo in sonata op. 2 No. 2). It is natural that the second half in such cases is made very concise, but more complex in harmonic terms (see further sections in the above examples - the return from D to A flat and from G sharp to A, as well as the second part of the Pathetic Sonata » L. Beethoven - transition to Mi and return to A-flat).
In principle, this type of modulation process - from simpler to complex, but concentrated - is the most natural and integral and interesting for perception. However, occasionally there are also opposite cases - from short, but complex (in the first half of the modulation) to simple, but more detailed (second half). See the corresponding sample - development in L. Beethoven's sonata in D minor, op. 31 (I part).
In this approach to modulation as a special integral process, it is essential to note the place and role of enharmonic modulations: they, as a rule, appear more often precisely in the second, effective part of the modulation process. The brevity inherent in enharmonic modulation with some harmonic complexity is especially appropriate and effective here (see the above samples).
In general, when analyzing enharmonic modulation, it is useful to understand its following role in each specific case: whether it simplifies the functional connection of distant keys (the norm for the classics) or complicates the connection of close keys (F. Chopin, Trio from Impromptu in A flat major; F Liszt, "William Tell Chapel") and a single-tone whole (see R. Schumann, "Butterflies", op. 2 No. 1; F. Chopin, mazurka in F minor, op. 68, etc.).
When considering modulations, it is necessary to touch upon the question of how the display of individual keys in a given work can harmonically differ if they are more or less extended in time and, therefore, independent in meaning.

For the composer and the work, not only the thematic, tonal, tempo and textural contrast in adjacent constructions is important, but also the individualization of harmonic means and techniques when showing one or another key. For example, in the first key, chords of a tertian, soft in gravity ratio are given, in the second - more complex and functionally intense sequences; or in the first - a bright diatonic, in the second - a complex chromatic major-minor basis, etc. It is clear that all this enhances the contrast of the images, the bulge of the sections, and the dynamism of the overall musical and harmonic development. See some samples: L. Beethoven. "Moonlight Sonata", finale, harmonic warehouse of the main and side parts; sonata "Aurora", op. 53, exposition of part I; F. Liszt, the song “Mountains all encompasses peace”, “E major; P. Tchaikovsky -6th symphony, finale; F. Chopin, sonata in B-flat minor.
The cases when almost the same harmonic sequences are repeated in different keys are rarer and always individual (see, for example, F. Chopin's mazurka in D major, op. harmonies in both D major and A major are sustained in identical forms).
When analyzing samples for various cases of comparing keys, it is advisable to emphasize two points: 1) the delimiting significance of this technique for adjacent sections of a musical work and 2) its interesting role in a kind of "acceleration" of the modulation process, and the methods of such "acceleration" are differentiated somehow and according to signs of style and are included in the process of harmonic development.
9. Features of development or dynamics in the harmonic language are prominently emphasized by harmonic variation.
Harmonic variation is a very important and lively technique, showing the great significance and flexibility of harmony for the development of thought, for enriching images, enlarging the form, and revealing the individual qualities of a given work. In the process of analysis, it is necessary to emphasize the role of harmonic ingenuity in the skillful application of such variation in its formative quality.
Harmonic variation, applied on time and technically complete, can contribute to the unification of several musical constructions into a larger whole (see, for example, a similar interesting variation of harmonies in the ostinato two-bar in the mazurka in B minor, op. 30 by F. Chopin) and enrich the reprise of the work (W. Mozart, "Turkish March"; R. Schumann, "Album Leaf" in F sharp minor, op. 99; F. Chopin, Mazurka in C sharp minor, op. 63 No. 3 or N. Medtner, "The Tale in F minor, op. 26).
Often, with such harmonic variation, the melody changes somewhat and repeats here, which usually contributes to a more natural and vivid appearance of “harmonic news”. One can point to at least Kupava's aria from the opera "The Snow Maiden" by N. Rimsky-Korsakov - "Spring Time", G-sharp minor, and the harmonic (more precisely, enharmonic) version of the theme "The frisky boy" in F. Liszt's fantasy on themes opera "The Marriage of Figaro" by W. Mozart.

10. Analysis of samples with altered chords (consonances) of various structure and complexity can be directed to the following goals and points:
1) it is desirable, if possible, to show students how these altered chords are emancipated from the chromatic non-chord sounds that served as their undoubted source;
2) it is useful to compile a detailed list of all altered chords of various functions (D, DD, S, secondary D) with their preparation and resolution, which are in circulation in the music of the 19th-20th centuries (based on specific samples);
3) consider how alterations can complicate the sound and functional nature of chords of mode and tonality, how they affect voice leading;
4) show what new varieties of cadences the alteration creates (the samples must be written out);
5) pay attention to the fact that complex types of alteration introduce new moments into the understanding of the stability and instability of the mode, tonality (N. Rimsky-Korsakov, "Sadko", "Kashchey"; A. Skryabin, preludes op. 33, 45, 69; N. Myaskovsky, “Yellowed Pages”);
6) to show that altered chords - with their brilliance and coloring - do not annul harmonic gravitation, but perhaps amplify it melodically (special resolution of altered sounds, free doublings, bold jumps to chromatic intervals when moving and resolving);
7) pay attention to the connection of alterations with major-minor modes (systems) and the role of altered chords in enharmonic modulation.

4. Generalizations of data from harmonic analysis

Synthesizing and summarizing all the essential observations and, in part, the conclusions obtained as a result of the analysis of individual methods of harmonic writing, it is most expedient to then focus the attention of students again on the problem of harmonic development (dynamics), but in a more special and comprehensive understanding of it in accordance with the data of the analysis of the components of harmonic letters.
In order to understand the process of harmonic movement and development more clearly and visually, it is necessary to weigh all the moments of harmonic presentation that can create the prerequisites for movement with its ups and downs. In this aspect of consideration, everything should be taken into account: changes in the chord structure, functional routine, voice leading; specific cadence turns are taken into account in their alternation and syntactic connection; harmonic phenomena are coordinated to the best of their ability with melody and metrorhythm; the effects introduced into harmony by non-chord sounds in different parts of the work (before the climax, on it and after it) are noted; enrichments and changes resulting from tonal changes, harmonic variation, the appearance of organ points, changes in harmonic pulsation, texture, etc. are also taken into account. In the end, a more or less clear and reliable picture of this development is obtained, which is achieved by means of homophonic-harmonic writing in its broader sense and taking into account the joint action of individual elements of musical speech (and the general character of music as a whole).

5. Stylistic moments in analysis

After such a more or less comprehensive harmonic analysis, it is essentially not difficult to link its conclusions and generalizations with the general content of a given musical work, its genre features and certain harmonic-stylistic qualities (and they show a connection with a specific historical era, one or another creative direction , creative person, etc.). It is clear that such linking is given on a limited scale and within the limits real for harmony.
On the paths that lead students to such at least a general stylistic understanding of harmonic phenomena, it is desirable (as experience shows) to have special additional analytical tasks (exercises, training). Their goal is to develop harmonious attention, observation and broaden the general outlook of students.
We will give a preliminary and purely indicative list of such possible tasks in the analytical part of the harmony course:
1) Very useful are simple excursions into the history of the development or practical application of individual harmonic techniques (for example, techniques of cadence, tonal presentation, modulation, alteration).
2) It is no less useful when analyzing a particular work to require students to find and somehow decipher the most interesting and significant "news" and individual features in its harmonic presentation.
3) It is advisable to collect several vivid and memorable examples of harmonic writing or to find “leitharmonies”, “leitkadanses”, etc. characteristic of certain composers (the works of L. Beethoven, R. Schumann, F. Chopin, R. Wagner, F. Liszt, E. Grieg, K. Debussy, P. Tchaikovsky, N. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. Scriabin, S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich).
4) It is also instructive to perform tasks on a comparative description of the method of applying outwardly similar techniques in the work of various composers, such as: L. Beethoven's diatonic and the same diatonic in P. Tchaikovsky, N. Rimsky-Krrsakbva, A. Scriabin, S. Prokofiev; sequences and their place in L. Beethoven and F. Chopin, F. Liszt, P. Tchaikovsky, N. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. Scriabin; harmonic variation in M. Glinka, N. Rimsky-Korsakov, M. Balakirev and the same in L. Beethoven, F. Chopin, F. Liszt; arrangements of Russian lingering songs by P. Tchaikovsky, N. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. Lyadov, "S. Lyapunov; L. Beethoven's romance "Above the Grave Stone" and tonal plans typical of F. Chopin and F. Liszt in major thirds; Phrygian cadence in Western and Russian music, etc.
It goes without saying that successful mastery of the most important techniques, methods and techniques of harmonic analysis is possible only with the great and constant help of the leader and systematic training in harmonic analysis in the classroom. Written analytical work, well thought out and regulated, can also be of great help.

Perhaps it will not be superfluous to remind once again that with any analytical tasks - more general and relatively in-depth - it is necessary to maintain a lively contact with direct musical perception. To do this, the analyzed work is played more than once, but is played or listened to both before analysis and necessarily after analysis - only under this condition will the analysis data acquire the necessary credibility and force of an artistic fact.

I. Dubovsky, S. Evseev, I. Sposobin, V. Sokolov. Harmony textbook.

musical form (lat. form- appearance, image, outline, beauty) is a complex multi-level concept that is used in different meanings.

Its main meanings are:

- musical form in general. In this case, form is understood broadly as a category present in art (including music) always and forever;

- a means of embodying the content, implemented in a holistic organization of the elements of music - melodic motifs, mode and harmony, texture, timbres, etc.;

- a historically established type of composition, for example, canon, rondo, fugue, suite, sonata form, etc. In this sense, the concept of form approaches the concept of a musical genre;

- individual organization of a single work - a unique, unlike any other, single "organism" in music, for example, Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata. The concept of form is connected with other concepts: form and material, form and content, etc. Of paramount importance in art, as in music in particular, is the relationship between the concepts of form and content. The content of music is the inner spiritual image of the work, what it expresses. In music, the central concepts of content are the musical idea and the musical image.

Analysis scheme:

1. Information about the era, style, life of the composer.

2. Figurative system.

3. Analysis of the form, structure, dynamic plan, identification of the climax.

4. Composer's means of expression.

5. Performing means of expression.

6. Methods for overcoming difficulties.

7. Features of the accompaniment party.

Means of musical expression:

– melody: phrasing, articulation, intonation;

- invoice;

- harmony;

– genre, etc.

Analysis - in the most general sense of the word - the process of mental or actual separation of something whole into its component parts (analysis). This is also true in relation to musical works, their analysis. In the process of studying its emotional and semantic content and genre nature, its melody and harmony, textural and timbre properties, dramaturgy and composition are considered separately.

However, speaking of musical analysis, we also have in mind the next phase of cognition of a work, which is a combination of particular observations and an assessment of the interactions of various elements and aspects of the whole, i.e. synthesis. General conclusions can only be drawn on the basis of a versatile approach to analysis, otherwise errors, sometimes very serious ones, are possible.

It is known, for example, that the climax is the most intense moment of development. In a melody, a high-pitched sound is usually achieved during the rise, followed by a fall, a turning point in the direction of movement.

The climax plays an important role in a piece of music. There is also a general climax, i.e. main along with others in the work.

Holistic analysis should be understood in two senses:

1. As a fuller possible coverage of the work's own properties in their specific relationships.

2. The fullest possible coverage of the connections of the work in question with the diverse phenomena of historical and cultural

directions.

The training course of analysis is designed to consistently and systematically teach the ability to disassemble a piece of music. The purpose of the analysis is to reveal the essence of a musical work, its internal properties and external relations. More specifically, this means that you need to identify:

- genre origins;

- figurative content;

- typical means of embodiment for the style;

- characteristic features of their time and place in today's culture.

To achieve its goals, music analysis uses a number of specific methods:

– reliance on direct personal and public perception;

– assessment of the work in connection with specific historical

the conditions for its occurrence;

– definition of the genre and style of music;

- disclosure of the content of the work through the specific properties of its artistic form;

- wide use of comparisons, similar in expressiveness of works representing different genres and types of music - as a means of concretizing the content, revealing the meaning of certain elements of the musical whole.

The concept of musical form is considered, as a rule, in two aspects:

- the organization of the whole complex of expressive means, thanks to which a piece of music exists as a kind of content;

- scheme - type of compositional plan.

These aspects oppose each other not only in terms of the breadth of their approach, but also in terms of the interaction of the content of the work. In the first case, the form is just as individual and inexhaustible for analysis, just as the very perception of the content of the work is inexhaustible. If we are talking about the content-scheme, then it is infinitely more neutral in relation to the content. And its characteristic and typical properties are exhausted by analysis.

The structure of a work is a system of relations between elements in a given whole. Musical structure is a level of musical form in which it is possible to trace the very process of development of the compositional scheme.

If the form-scheme can be likened to the scale of the mode, which gives the most general idea about the mode, then the structure corresponds to a similar characteristic of all the inclinations that exist in the work.

Musical material is that side of the sounding matter of music that exists and is perceived as a kind of meaning, and we are talking about a purely musical meaning that cannot be conveyed in any other way, and can only be described in the language of specific terms.

The characteristics of the musical material largely depend on the structure of the musical work. Musical material is quite often, but not always, associated with certain structural phenomena, which to some extent blurs the differences between the semantic and structural sides of musical sound.