Types of adolescent deviant behavior, causes and factors. Deviant behavior and social norms

People's behavior does not always correspond to social norms. On the contrary, in many cases they are not observed, violated. Behavior that is not consistent with the norms, does not correspond to what society expects from a person, is called deviant behavior. Sociologists give another definition: deviant behavior is a form of disorganization of the behavior of an individual in a group or category of persons in society, reveals a discrepancy between established expectations, moral and legal requirements of society. Negative deviations from social norms at the level of the individual are manifested primarily in crimes and other offenses, in immoral acts. At the level of small social groups, these deviations are manifested in deformations, violations of the normal relationships between people (strife, scandals, etc.). In the activities of state and public organizations, such deviations are manifested in bureaucracy, red tape, corruption and other phenomena.

Deviation from the norms can also be positive, that is, have beneficial consequences for society (for example, initiatives, innovative proposals aimed at improving social relations). There are also individual, not harmful features of the behavior of an individual: eccentricity, eccentricity.

Manifestations of deviant behavior are as diverse as different social norms. The consequences of these deviations are no less diverse, their common feature is the harm, damage caused to society, a social group, other people, as well as a person who allows negative deviations.

Especially dangerous are social deviations as a mass phenomenon. Crimes and other offenses, alcoholism, drug addiction, religious fanaticism, racial intolerance, terrorism - these and other similar negative processes in the development of society bring an extraordinary loss to humanity.

What are the causes of deviant behavior? Researchers have different points of view on this issue. At the end of the XIX century. a biological explanation was put forward for the cause of deviations: the presence in some people of an innate tendency to violate social norms, which is associated with the physical characteristics of the individual, criminal temperament, and the like. These theories were subsequently subjected to convincing criticism.

Other scientists have looked for a psychological explanation for the cause of the deviations. They came to the conclusion that the value-normative representations of the individual play an important role: understanding the world around, attitude to social norms, and most importantly, the general orientation of the interests of the individual. The researchers came to the conclusion that the basis of behavior that violates established norms is a different system of values ​​and rules than that enshrined in law. For example, a psychological study of such motives for illegal actions as cruelty, greed and deceit showed that these qualities are most pronounced among criminals, and their permissibility or necessity is justified by them (“It is always better to show your strength”, “Take

everything you can from life! ").

Scientists have come to the conclusion that these personality deformations are the result of its abnormal development. For example, cruelty can be the result of a cold, indifferent attitude towards the child on the part of parents, and often the cruelty of adults.

Studies have shown that low self-esteem, self-deprecation in adolescence is compensated in the future by deviant behavior, with the help of which it is possible to draw attention to oneself, gain approval from those who evaluate violation of norms as signs of a "strong" personality.

The sociological explanation of the causes of deviations from social norms has received wide recognition. The well-known sociologist E. Durkheim showed the dependence of deviant behavior on crisis phenomena in social development. During crises, radical social changes, in the conditions of disorganization of social life (unexpected economic downturns and upswings, falls in business activity, inflation), a person's life experience ceases to correspond to the ideals embodied in social norms. Social norms break down, people become disoriented, and this contributes to the emergence of deviant behavior.

Some scholars have associated deviant behavior with a conflict between the dominant culture and the culture of a group (subculture) that denies generally accepted norms. In this case, criminal behavior, for example, may be the result of an individual's predominant communication with carriers of criminal norms. The criminal environment creates its own subculture, its own norms, which oppose the norms recognized in society. The frequency of contacts with representatives of the criminal community affects the assimilation by a person (especially a young one) of the norms of antisocial behavior.

There are other explanations for deviant behavior. Think about these points of view and try to explain for yourself the reasons for the deviation of behavior from social norms.

In relation to persons who allow a negative deviation from the norms, society applies social sanctions, that is, punishment for unapproved, undesirable actions. Weak forms of deviant behavior (error, deceit, rudeness, negligence, etc.) are corrected by other people - participants in the interaction (remark, humor, condemnation, etc.). More significant forms of social deviations (offences, etc.), depending on their consequences, cause condemnation and punishment, come not only from the public, but also from state bodies.

Of the many manifestations of deviant behavior, let's take a closer look at crime, alcoholism, drug addiction.

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DATA ANALYSIS MULTIDIMENSIONAL – analysis of dependencies and interdependencies between several characteristics.

ANOMIE (letters.- normlessness) - the state of society, characterized by the collapse of the norms governing social interactions, individual behavior.

GROUP SOCIAL - a collection of individuals limited to informal or formal membership. Its members interact on the basis of certain role expectations in relation to each other. Groups differ in the degree of cooperation and solidarity, in the degree of social control. When each member of the group identifies with it (the feeling of "we" appears), stable membership in the group and the boundaries of social control are formed. Each individual is included in several groups - different at different periods of his life. He is a member of a family, a class, a student group, a work group, a group of friends, a member of a sports team, etc. Social groups can be of various sizes - small and large, as well as formal and informal.

Small groups are formed within the scope of interpersonal relationships. In large groups, personal contacts between all members are no longer possible, but such groups have clear formal boundaries and are controlled by certain institutional relations, most often formal ones. There are also large groups whose members are not connected by any interpersonal or formal relations and cannot always identify their membership - they are connected only on the basis of proximity of interests, lifestyle, consumption standards and cultural patterns (property groups, groups of origin, official status, etc.). .P.). These are groups whose membership is based on proximity or coincidence. social status, are called status groups .

DEVIATION - deviant behavior- social behavior , deviating from the accepted, socially acceptable in a particular society or social context. This includes many different types of behavior (foul language, alcohol abuse, drug use, football hooliganism, etc.) Some of them, which are associated with a violation of legal norms, are defined as delinquent, or criminal, and are punishable by law. However, social condemnation is also subjected to many acts that are not illegal, but which are defined by society as deviant or which are "labeled" as deviant. Sociology studies deviation as a socially conditioned phenomenon, since ideas about the norm and deviation are associated with the social context and vary in different societies and even subcultures. The definition of an action as deviant presupposes the existence of some normative consensus in society - a fundamental agreement on basic values.

Modern society does not have cultural unity and value consensus, it is characterized by a wide pluralism of values ​​and norms. In such a situation, the difference between the norm and the deviation becomes indefinite, more and more local, group, and the social reaction to the deviation is not universal, but socially limited. Therefore, the main question becomes the question of who in society determines deviation, "sticks a label" of deviance. Some sociologists believe that all people are deviant to some extent, since no one fully corresponds to the social ideal, the canons of socially acceptable behavior. Sociology studies deviation in connection with mechanisms socialization. Deviation is a product of certain social processes that lead to individuals falling out of "normal" roles and groups, limiting their access to ordinary roles and activities, and accepting the values ​​of a deviant culture.

ACTION SOCIAL- the most important concept of theoretical sociology. It was introduced into sociology by M. Weber, who considered the meaningful orientation of its subject to another, to the response from other participants in the interaction, as the main sign of social action. An action that is not oriented towards other people and does not have a certain degree of awareness of this orientation is not social. Weber defined sociology as a science that attempts to interpret the meaning of action (hence the name "understanding" sociology) and explain social reality as a derivative of individual meaningful activity.

DETERMINISM SOCIO-HISTORICAL - the theory of society, in which the latter is interpreted as a social integrity that exists, functions and develops through a person and his activities. It proceeds from the organic interaction of structural and personal elements in the specific historical conditions of their existence (in a given social system), giving priority to personal elements. At the same time, determinism does not exclude the economic orientation, i.e. recognizes the decisive importance, in the final analysis, of the economic structure.

DETERMINISM TECHNOLOGICAL- a methodological position based on the recognition of the decisive role of technology in social development. It is believed that technology develops according to its own laws independent of man (like nature) and determines the development of social and cultural life. That is, the social is recognized as derived from technology. In relation to man to technology, on this methodological foundation, two opposite positions stand out: technicalism - faith in the unconditional beneficialness of the development of technology for man and mankind and anti-technism - distrust, fear of unpredictable consequences of new technologies.

DYSFUNCTION - failure of the social system to solve a specific social problem, failure to meet social needs.

SOCIAL LAWS - objectively existing, stable, recurring connection of social phenomena and processes. Modern sociology understands social laws as relatively stable and reproducible types of relations between different social communities. Social laws are the laws of social activity of people. They are the result of the activities of many individuals who have formed a certain system of social relations, certain modes of activity, certain forms of social communication.

IDENTIFICATION AND SOCIAL IDENTITY- the process and result of self-identification of an individual with any person, group, model. Identification is one of the mechanisms socialization personality, through which certain norms of behavior, values, etc. are assimilated. those social groups or individuals with which the person identifies himself. Each individual has several different identities, which gives rise to the problem of personal integration. If a person fails to solve this problem, a situation arises, called an identity crisis. In various types of social systems, personal identification occurs in different ways. The current situation is characterized by a crisis of the mechanisms and foundations of identity characteristic of an industrial society, when people cannot relate themselves to such social communities as the state, nation, class, professional group, and even gender.

SOCIAL CHANGES is one of the main problems in sociology. Various methodological approaches are used to study it. Society goes through certain stages in its development, from simple forms to more complex and differentiated ones. Social change is seen as a process of adaptation of the system to the environment based on differentiation and increase in structural complexity. K. Marx emphasized the importance of class contradictions and the class struggle generated by the contradiction between the productive forces and production relations.

According to Marxism, the development of society occurs through a revolutionary transition from one socio-economic formation to another. A social revolution is a fundamental, qualitative change in the entire structure of society. Such a coup is impossible without a political revolution - the conquest of state power by a progressive class capable of carrying out revolutionary transformations of the whole society. Theories of industrial and post-industrial society assign a decisive role in social change to technological changes that occur in the course of technological revolutions people, cultural and moral values).

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX – an integral indicator of the level of social development of the population of the country, including three leading indicators: life expectancy, level of education, index of living standards.

INDIVIDUALITY - a set of unique psychophysical and sociocultural properties of a person that characterize his originality.

INDUSTRIALIZATION- which began in Great Britain during the industrial revolution of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. and the process of transformation of economies and societies dominated by agriculture and handicrafts into economies and societies based on machine (mechanized) production, which has spread to other countries. Industrialization implies the development of the division of labor and new production relations, urbanization, changes in the structure of employment, etc. The process of industrialization is the basis of a wider process modernization. Despite the commonality of the main features, industrialization in different countries occurs in different ways and in different historical periods.

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY- a society in which industrialization took place, which created new technological foundations for its development. Distinctive features of an industrial society:

1. Approval of the industrial technological order as dominant in all social spheres (from economic to cultural).

2. Change in the proportions of employment by industry: a significant reduction in the share of those employed in agriculture (up to 3–5%) and an increase in the share of those employed in industry (up to
50–60%) and the service sector (up to 40–45%).

3. Intense urbanization.

4. Emergence of the nation-state, organized on the basis of a common language and culture.

5. Educational revolution. The transition to universal literacy and the formation of national education systems.

6. Political revolution leading to the establishment of political rights and freedoms (primarily the right to vote).

7. Growth in the level of consumption ("revolution of consumption", the formation of a "welfare state").

8. Change in the structure of working and free time (formation of a "consumer society". Change in the demographic type of development (low birth rate, mortality, increased life expectancy, aging of the population, i.e., an increase in the proportion of older age groups).

INSTITUTE SOCIAL- relatively stable and long-term forms of social practice that are sanctioned and supported by social norms and through which social life is organized and the stability of social relations is ensured. Social institutions organize human activity into a certain system roles and statuses establishing patterns of human behavior in various spheres of public life. Any social institution includes a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical, which ensure the observance of the relevant values ​​and norms, the reproduction of the corresponding role relations. Thus, social institutions streamline, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character, and ensure standard behavior of people in socially typical situations.

INTEREST SOCIAL- this is the interest of any social subject (individual, social group, class, nation), associated with its position in a certain system of social relations. Of paramount importance are class interests, which are determined by the position of classes in the system of production relations. However, any social interests, including class interests, are not limited to the sphere of production relations. They cover the entire system of social relations and are associated with various aspects of the position of their subject. A generalized expression of all the interests of a social subject is his political interest, which expresses the attitude of this subject to political power in society. A social group, seeking to realize its interest, may come into conflict with other groups. Any social transformation of society is accompanied by a sharp change in the balance of interests. The conflict of class, national, state interests underlies social revolutions, wars and other upheavals in world history.

INFORMATION SOCIETY- one of the theoretical models used to describe a qualitatively new stage of social development, which the developed countries entered with the beginning of the information and computer revolution. The technological basis of society is not industrial, but information and telecommunication technologies.

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH - one of the main ways of developing sociological knowledge. There are two types of sociological research: theoretical and applied, aimed at developing new approaches and a more in-depth study of certain social problems, and applied, focused on the practical solution of specific problems. Sociological research includes four main stages:

1. Development of a theoretical concept and research program.

2. Field period (collection of primary data and their preparation for processing).

3. Data processing and analysis.

4. Final reports and publications.

The development of the program is a very important stage, which largely determines the success of the entire study. The program formulates the research problem, its goals and objectives, defines the object (social group - the carrier of the social problem under study) and the subject (those characteristics in which the problem is expressed) of the research. The research hypothesis is formulated, i.e. a hypothetical explanation of the problem under study, which must be confirmed or refuted in the course of the study. The community that is studied in this study is called the general population (all youth, or rural youth, or urban youth, etc.). However, the entire population is usually not explored. That part of the general population that is directly covered by this study is called the sample. According to the data obtained on the sample, the conclusions apply to the entire population. Therefore, the sample must be representative, i.e. the composition of the sample according to the selected parameters should approach the corresponding proportions in the general population.

The measure of similarity (or degree of deviation) is called sampling error. A sample with an error of 3-5% is considered reliable. There are special coefficients for calculating the sample size depending on the acceptable level of error. Now it is necessary to move from the theoretical model of the object of study to the empirical model, i.e. "decompose" theoretical concepts into empirical indicators - such characteristics that can be measured. Here it is very important to find points of contact between theoretical concepts and real social processes and phenomena. The search for empirical meanings of theoretical concepts is a complex procedure, during which one can "lose" important characteristics of the object. The next step is the transformation of the empirical system into a numerical one, i.e. search for ways of quantitative (numerical) expression and measurement of qualitative features and their relationships. To solve this problem, special units of measurement are constructed, scales are built, etc. When these operations are carried out and the research tools are developed, they are tested on a small number of respondents (interviewees) - the so-called pilot study. Only after this comes the second - the field stage of sociological research, i.e. work on the main array. The following main data collection methods are used:

1. observation (included and not included);

2. analysis of documents (one of the main methods is content analysis, i.e. analysis of the semantic content of texts);

3. surveys (questionnaires and interviews);

In the processing of data obtained as a result of sociological research, numerous methods are used - from the simplest methods of primary processing (such as grouping and empirical typology) to the most complex mathematical processing methods that allow building models of multidimensional dependence of various characteristics of the object under study. There are special computer programs that make these methods quite accessible. The two main methodological approaches that exist in sociology correspond to two main types of sociological research, conventionally designated as "quantitative" and "qualitative". In line with the sociology of sociocentric orientation, traditional "quantitative" studies are carried out, focused on the study of mass, socio-statistical phenomena and processes. In them, everything individual is eliminated as accidental. Such studies are reliable in stable societies where social trends are stable and long-lasting. It is no coincidence that the flourishing of "quantitative" sociology falls precisely on such periods.

In critical, unstable periods of social development, more flexible approaches are required that are able to catch only emerging social trends, only emerging social phenomena. In such situations, "qualitative" research is more effective, which, in accordance with the principles of humanistic methodology, is focused specifically on the individual, his subjective perception of the changing reality and the development of a new life strategy. This is a "different" methodology of sociological research. It differs significantly from the strategies and procedures of "quantitative" sociology, as it is based on a different logic at all stages of scientific research: from the theoretical attitude of the researcher, the focus of his interest to the procedure for collecting and interpreting data. The main difference between the general strategy of qualitative research is an open, exploratory, unstructured approach to a problem situation; in a multidimensional study of an object based on the absence of a preliminary scheme, which leaves many, especially new, aspects of the problem under study “outside the brackets”: here the theoretical concept is formulated not at the beginning of the study, but “at the exit”; in the natural study of an object in its natural conditions using flexible, non-formalized tools (narrative, i.e. narrative interviews, focus group research, etc.).

Modern sociology is increasingly using "qualitative" methods and types of study of individual communities (case studies), which are difficult to analyze by other methods (such as criminal gangs, social elites, religious sects, etc.); ethnographic studies of various unique cultural groups (Cossacks, peasantry, etc.); historical research - families, human life stories, etc. However, in major sociological research, the methods of "quantitative" and "qualitative" sociology are usually used together in various combinations or in parallel.

CLASS- a concept that is used in sociology in several senses:

1. to denote social strata that make up a special, "open" system social stratification characteristic of an industrial society. For it, in contrast to the "closed" caste and estate systems of stratification, it is characterized mainly by the status of attainability, "open" social boundaries and a high level of social mobility;

2. as the most general term in theories of social stratification to denote a certain position in the system of hierarchical differences (upper, lower and middle classes);

3. as a theoretical (analytical) concept underlying the class theories of society. The two most influential class theories in classical and modern sociology are Marxist and Weberian.

AT Marxism class is used as the most general concept that characterizes the place of individuals and social groups in the social system, primarily in the system of social production. The main criterion for the allocation of classes is the ownership of the means of production. All class systems are characterized by the presence of two main classes - the exploiter and the exploited. The relationship between them is antagonistic. The class struggle is a decisive factor in social change. The main classes of capitalist society are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx singled out the concepts of "class in itself" - this is a class whose members have not yet realized their common class interests, and "class for itself" - a class that has developed class self-consciousness. Thus, in Marxism, classes are not just descriptive concepts, but real social communities and real social forces that can change society. The Marxist tradition of class analysis remains one of the most influential today.

Weberian class theory alternative to Marxism. Weber considered classes as social groups that stand out in the economic hierarchical structure, i.e. like Marx, Weber's classes are "economic classes". However, the attitude to property in the Weberian concept becomes a particular criterion, the main role is given to differences in market positions. Belonging to a class generates differences in life chances in the commodity market and the labor market. A class, according to Weber, is a category of people who share similar "opportunities of life", first of all, the prospects for social mobility, the possibility of being promoted to higher statuses. One of the bases of a market position is capital, the other is qualifications and education. Accordingly, Weber singled out four "economic classes" - the class of owners; the class of intellectuals, administrators and managers; the petty-bourgeois class of small businessmen and proprietors; working class. According to Weber, class conflict could arise between any of these groups, not just between workers and capitalists. In addition to economic factors, Weber identified other factors leading to social inequality. In particular, he noted power and prestige as the most important. Therefore, in addition to "economic classes" and the class structure, the existence of other hierarchical structures (political, socio-cultural, etc.) and social groups that stand out in these hierarchical structures is possible in society.

There is a tendency in modern sociology to overestimate the central importance of classes. Classes and the class type of social stratification are seen as having limited historical significance - it is only in modern industrial society, primarily capitalist, that division into classes constitutes the main basis of social organization and the central source of society's dynamics. A post-industrial society is often defined as "post-class", emphasizing the fact that classes cease to determine the type of social stratification characteristic of it, and a high level of social mobility reduces the influence of class on an individual's career. However, despite calls by some theorists to do away with classes, both versions of class analysis continue to exist and develop.

CONTENT ANALYSIS - a method of quantitative analysis of the content of written documents, television, radio programs and other types of documents and information by counting some of the elements repeated in them (names, topics, slogans, etc.).

CONTROL SOCIAL- this is a set of means by which society ensures the reproduction of the dominant type of social relations, social structures. The system of social control guarantees such behavior of members of society that meets the role requirements and expectations. The mechanisms and means of social control are extremely diverse. Social control is carried out in society, primarily through socialization, in the process of which the assimilation of social roles by individuals and the internalization of the values ​​and norms of a given society take place. Through socialization, social control is carried out as an internal control of the individual over his behavior.

External control is carried out primarily through the mechanisms of group pressure, since each individual is included in a group (and not in one), which has its own cultural norms, its own code of conduct. Deviation from them is immediately punished by appropriate sanctions - from condemnation to exclusion from the group. External control, in addition to informal group control, is also carried out through the mechanisms of formal - administrative-legal coercion, violence or the threat of violence. In all societies, including modern ones, violence is the most important means of social control. In modern society, the state is recognized as the only legitimate institution of violence. Economic pressure is also a powerful tool of social control, which is used not only in the sphere of production itself, in the labor market, but also in other public spheres (economic motivation in the education system, art, etc.).

CONFLICT SOCIAL- open struggle between individuals or groups in society or between states. The conflict is social in nature when it is based on an objective divergence or contradiction of the goals and interests of various social actors. Thus, conflict can be viewed as a way of expressing and resolving (or settling) social contradictions. There are two trends in sociology that assess the nature and role of conflicts in society in different ways. Back in the 19th century, supporters of social Darwinism (Spencer, Sumner, Gumplovich) considered conflict as an inevitable phenomenon in the history of human society, as a social form of the struggle for existence, an incentive and the most important mechanism for social development. K. Marx proposed a model of class conflict, which is antagonistic (irreconcilable) in nature and is resolved by a social revolution that destroys the existing system.

In the 50s and 60s. In the 20th century, a general sociological concept took shape, called the "conflict theory" (R.Dahrendorf, L.Kozer). It comes from the concept of the conflict nature of society. Dahrendorf retains the notion of class conflict. However, unlike Marx, he believes that the main conflict in society arises over the distribution of power and authority, and not property. The conflict is seen as the result of resistance to existing in any society relations of domination - subordination, therefore, as irremovable. Supporters of this concept believe that the conflict performs a positive function, contributing to the stabilization of society and the preservation of the existing order.

In complex pluralistic societies, it does not come down to a confrontation between two classes, but has a "cross" character, when opponents in one issue are supporters in another. The decrease in the severity and number of class conflicts, which were threatening in the early stage of capitalist industrialization, is explained by conflict theorists by the institutionalization of the conflict. Gradually, specialized institutions (such as trade unions, arbitration courts, etc.) and corresponding value-normative systems developed in society, designed to resolve conflicts. Another direction, represented by Durkheim and modern "equilibrium theorists" (Parsons, Merton), considers conflict as a dysfunction in an equilibrium social system, as a pathology. It is focused not so much on the study of the conflict as on the justification of consensus.

CONFORMISM- opportunism, passive acceptance of the existing social order, prevailing opinions, etc. Conformism should be distinguished from other manifestations of uniformity in views, opinions, judgments that are formed in the process of socialization, as well as a change in views under the influence of convincing argumentation. Conformism is the adoption by an individual of a certain opinion "under pressure", under pressure from society or a group. It is mainly due to the fear of sanctions or the unwillingness to remain in isolation.

CORRELATION - probabilistic or statistical dependence of two characteristics.

LEGITIMACY(from lat. legal, proper, correct) is a term introduced in a specifically sociological sense by Weber to characterize a social order that has prestige and, therefore, an actual normative significance for the social behavior of people. That is, legitimacy is a belief in the significance of the social order, making it unacceptable to violate its norms and requirements. The legitimacy of the social order is guaranteed in various ways:

1. affective (affective action) - based on emotional commitment to this order;

2. value-rational (value-rational action) - based on confidence in its unconditional value;

3. in a strictly religious way - on the basis of the belief that the highest good and the salvation of people depend on the preservation of this order.

PERSONALITY- a system of social qualities of a person, formed on the basis of his inclusion in the system of social relations. Sociological analysis singles out in a person not individual, but social-typical traits, formed by a given system of social relations and necessary for its reproduction. An individual becomes a personality only as a member of a certain society in the process of mastering certain social roles and the corresponding value-normative system, in the process of acquiring social identity, i.e. in the process socialization. Personality is a product and subject of social systems, their change and development. Therefore, various types of social systems "produce" certain types of personality and, in one way or another, exclude those that "do not suit" them.

MACRO- and MICROSOCIOLOGY– two levels of sociological analysis, sociological generalizations. Macrosociology is the level of sociological analysis of entire societies, social structures and systems, fundamental social patterns and processes (structural functionalism, evolutionism, conflict theory, etc.). The basic concepts of this level are society, social system, class, power, etc. Microsociology is a level of social analysis based on the study of direct interpersonal interactions on an everyday level, on relationships in a group (symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology, etc.). The basic concepts of this level are social group, group dynamics, leadership, etc.

MARGINALITY(from lat. margo - edge) - "borderlines", the intermediate position of an individual or social group in the social structure of society. Individual marginality characterized by the incomplete entry of the individual into a group that does not fully accept him, and his alienation from the group of origin, which rejects him as an apostate. The individual turns out to be a "cultural hybrid" (R. Park), sharing the life and traditions of two different groups. Group marginality arises as a result of changes in the social structure of society, the formation of new functional groups in the economy and politics, displacing old groups, destabilizing their social position. However, marginalization does not always lead to "sinking to the bottom."

Natural marginalization is associated mainly with horizontal or upward vertical mobility. If marginalization is associated with a radical change in the social structure (revolutions, reforms), partial or complete destruction of stable communities, then it often leads to a massive lowering of social status. However, marginal elements are making attempts to re-integrate into the social system. This can lead either to very intense mass mobility (coups and revolutions, uprisings and wars), or to the formation of new social groups fighting with other groups for a place in the social space.

MOBILITY SOCIAL- the movement of individuals and social groups of society between different positions in the system of social stratification. The problem of social mobility and the term itself were introduced into sociology by P. Sorokin. Moving up in the respective status hierarchy represents ascending mobility, down descending. Individual social mobility is associated with the social movements of individuals, group - with changes in the social structure of society and the very foundations of social stratification (revolutions, reforms). There is also an intergenerational ( intergenerational ) mobility – differences between father and son, socioeconomic class or family origin status of a person compared to their personal achievement, and intergenerational mobility ( intragenerational ) - the ups and downs of an individual career.

MODERNIZATION- the process of transition from a traditional, agrarian society to modern, industrial societies. Classical theories of modernization described the so-called "primary" modernization, which historically coincided with the process of the genesis of Western capitalism. More recent theories of modernization describe what has been termed "secondary" or "catch-up" modernization, which is carried out in the presence of a "pattern." Often such modernization is understood as westernization, i.e. the process of direct borrowing (or imposition) of the Western European liberal model of modernization with virtually no regard for the specifics of the conditions of the modernizing country, its historical traditions and culture. In essence, such modernization is a worldwide process of displacement of local, local types of culture and social organization by "universal" (Western) forms of modernity.

NORM SOCIAL - prescriptions that serve as general guidelines for social action and express social expectations of "correct" or "proper" behavior. A certain orderliness of people's behavior in society is precisely the result of following general expectations or norms, the system of which is called the normative order, which ensures the preservation and reproduction of the pattern. A social norm does not necessarily express actual behavior - it is rather "expected" behavior. The rules require legitimacy. They are learned in the process. socialization individuals on the basis of internalization and are provided with mechanisms social control. Deviation from the norms is punishable by sanctions.

SOCIETY - a historically developing set of relations between people, emerging in the process of their life, a specific social organism, subject to its own special laws of functioning and development. The development and functioning of society is determined by the requirements of economic, social, demographic, psychological and other laws and patterns that are the subject of the relevant sciences.

CONSUMER SOCIETY- one of the characteristics of modern society (modern society), which is increasingly organized on the basis of the principle of consumption. This is usually associated with such social changes as income growth, which significantly changes the structure of consumption (more and more money is spent not on essential goods, but on durable goods, leisure etc.); a decrease in working hours and an increase in free time; the erosion of the class structure and the multifactorial nature of social differentiation, leading to the fact that the formation of identity is increasingly shifting from the labor sphere to the sphere of leisure and consumption; individualization of consumption, which forms an individual style and image. As for the economy, in accordance with these changes, it is often called the "economy of the consumer" (and not the producer), where it is not supply that creates demand, but, on the contrary, demand forms supply. The market is segmented, and individual consumption reflects not only the social characteristics of the consumer, being a demonstration of his social status, but also the features of his individual lifestyle.

COMMON SOCIAL- a broad concept that unites various sets of people who are characterized by some of the same features of life and consciousness. Communities of various types are forms of joint life activity of people, forms of human community. They are formed on a different basis and are extremely diverse. These are communities that are formed in the sphere of social production (classes, professional groups, etc.), growing on an ethnic basis (nationalities, nations), on the basis of demographic differences (sex and age communities), etc. Historically, the first form of social community was the family and such based on kinship relations, social communities, like a clan and a tribe. In the future, social communities are also formed on other grounds and bear the imprint of a specific socio-economic system.

Social communities are characterized not only by the presence of common objective characteristics, but also by the awareness of the unity of their interests in comparison with other communities, a more or less developed sense of "we". It is on this basis that a simple (statistical) set of people with common objective characteristics is transformed into a real social community. People are simultaneously members of various communities, with varying degrees of internal unity. Therefore, often unity in one (for example, in nationality) can give way to difference in another (for example, in class).

OBJECT OF SOCIOLOGY - social reality, society as a whole and its individual "parts" (personality, family, economy, politics, etc.). It is the object of not only sociology, but also other social and human sciences.

ORGANIZATION SOCIAL- a closed hierarchical structure created for specific purposes and having an internal formal status-role and value-normative structure. Organization is one of the most important elements of the structure of modern society. Most of social groups in modern society exists in the form of organizations (from kindergarten, school and university to the labor collective, party and trade union). Organizations differ from other social groups (families, communication groups, etc.) precisely in the formal nature of relations.

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS- this is a definite, ordered system of relationships between individuals belonging to various social communities. People interact with each other in a non-random way. They are members of certain social groups, occupy a certain status. Therefore, they enter into relationships with other people that correspond to status positions. These relations are more or less steadily reproduced in the course of the functioning of society. A change in the social status of an individual inevitably entails a change in the nature of his relations with other people. Social changes involve changing the entire system of relationships in this complex structure of social connections and interactions.

RESEARCH PLAN WORKING - a plan that fixes the main stages and schedule of work in accordance with the research program.

MATERIALISTIC UNDERSTANDING OF HISTORY - the theory of society, which proceeds from the proposition that the mode of production, and after it the exchange of its products, is the basis of any social system, considers society as a social organism, the source of development of which lies, first of all, in itself, and is not located outside .

POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY- This concept was first proposed by D. Bell in 1962. It fixed the entry in the late 50s - early 60s. 20th century developed Western countries, which have exhausted the potential of industrial production, into a qualitatively new stage of development. It is characterized by a decrease in the share and importance of industrial production due to the growth of the service and information sectors. The production of services becomes the main area of ​​economic activity. Based on these changes, there is a rethinking of all the basic characteristics of an industrial society, a fundamental change in theoretical guidelines. Thus, a post-industrial society is defined as a "post-economic", "post-labor" society, i.e. a society in which the economic subsystem loses its defining significance, and labor ceases to be the basis of all social relations.

A person in a post-industrial society is no longer considered as an "economic person" par excellence. New, "post-materialistic" values ​​become dominant for him. The first "phenomenon" of such a person is considered the youth riot of the late 60s, which meant the end of the Protestant work ethic as the moral basis of Western industrial civilization. Economic growth ceases to act as the main, much less the only guideline, goal of social development. The emphasis is shifting to social and humanitarian problems. The priority issues are the quality and safety of life, self-realization of the individual. New criteria for well-being and social well-being are being formed.

A post-industrial society is also defined as a "post-class" society, reflecting the disintegration of the stable social structures and identities characteristic of an industrial society. If before the status of an individual in society was determined by his place in the economic structure, i.e. class belonging to which all other social characteristics were subordinated, now the status characteristic of an individual is determined by many factors, among which an increasing role is played by education, the level of culture (what P. Bourdieu called "cultural capital").

POSTMODERN - postmodern era. Contrasted with modernity - the era of modernity. This term is used as the broadest concept to describe a qualitatively new stage of social development that follows modernity, which, according to postmodern theorists, has exhausted its historical potential. The characteristics of postmodernity are usually built on the basis of opposition to the main characteristics of modernity (as their negation).

POSTMODERNISM- a special attitude characteristic of a person of the postmodern era. Postmodernism emerged in the mid-1950s. 20th century in the USA as an artistic phenomenon, in the field of architecture, sculpture, painting. Then came the literary and musical forms of postmodernism. Postmodernism as an artistic style is characterized by such features as a conscious focus on eclecticism, mosaicism, irony, playful style, parodic rethinking of traditions, rejection of the division of art into elite and mass, overcoming the border between art and everyday life, etc. In the 80s. 20th century postmodernism was formed as a special ideological, theoretical trend, associated with a certain unity of philosophical and general theoretical premises and methodological approaches. He quickly penetrated into all spheres of social and humanitarian knowledge, including sociology, began to influence various spheres of public life - politics, culture, international relations.

The complexity and ambiguity of this spiritual phenomenon gives rise to a very wide range of its assessments - from the recognition of postmodernism as the most relevant and "advanced" part of modern culture to its complete rejection and interpretation as a virus that corrupts modern culture. With all the diversity of approaches that distinguishes it, postmodernism has created its own specific tradition of social analysis, which clearly stands out from all the others. Its central problem is the problem of language, text. Reality cannot be comprehended outside of language, outside of text.

Postmodernism renounces the old belief in a language capable of faithfully and authentically reproducing reality, speaking the "truth" about it. From this follows the most important thesis of postmodernism - about the unreliability of knowledge obtained with the help of language, and, as a result, about the problematic nature of the picture of reality (episteme, according to Foucault) that exists in a particular era. This is the initial and main idea of ​​postmodernism, which gives rise to the installation of resistance to the power of linguistic structures, the source of its negativistic pathos. It expresses those cardinal changes in the socio-cultural situation that have taken place in the world (and not only in Western society) under the influence of the globalizing mass media system, which mystifies mass consciousness, generates myths and illusions.

J. Baudrillard called the reality formed under their influence hyperreality. Hyperreality arises when cultural representations lose their connection with the human reality they are supposed to describe and become autonomous – simulacra. This word, which has become fashionable, means a pseudo-thing that replaces a "disappearing" reality, something that seems to have no referent. Thus, the relationship of man with the world is transformed in a fundamental way. In a world dominated by artificial models, no distinction is made between "words" and "things".

Postmodernity is characterized by two main features - the disintegration of the unity characteristic of modernity and the growth of pluralism. Recognition of the diversity and equivalence of any cultural forms, the refusal to establish any kind of hierarchical order is the main slogan of postmodernism. Therefore, it is natural for postmodernism to reject the idea of ​​the linear development of history, the principle of the universality of historical development, and the idea of ​​progress. In postmodernism, the social world loses the features of totality, alignment. It appears as an unstable collection of local fragments, poorly coordinated with each other, and therefore fraught with a variety of possibilities for further development.

In postmodernism, the idea of ​​the determinism and universal orientation of social development is replaced by the idea of ​​its uncertainty and multivariance. Postmodernism expresses epochal changes in the paradigm of world social development, the essence of which is the replacement of Eurocentrism with global polycentrism. Postmodernism is a reflection of the crisis of the universality of modernity, the crisis of Western rationalism as its universal cultural foundation. It carries a sense of the exhaustion of the old and the unpredictability of the new, the future contours of which are not clear and do not promise anything definite and reliable.

SUBJECT OF SOCIOLOGY - a special side or sphere of social reality, characterized by social laws and patterns of development and functioning of this reality, the whole set of social ties and relationships.

PRESTIGE SOCIAL- public assessment of the position of an individual or social group in the social system. Different status positions in society are endowed with different social prestige, expressing an assessment of the attractiveness of certain positions. On the basis of social prestige, for example, the choice of a profession occurs. If during the period of industrial development the professions of an engineer, doctor and teacher were the most prestigious in our country, now it is a banker, an entrepreneur, a manager. Therefore, social prestige is an important indicator of social stratification. It symbolically shapes and reinforces the polarization of society, mutual assessments, claims and expectations of social groups, and becomes a mechanism for the conservation of new relations.

RESEARCH PROGRAM - a document that provides a presentation and justification of the logic and methods of studying a social object in accordance with the scientific and practical problems being solved.

PROTEST ACTION – (from lat. protestor - publicly prove) -

1) unit of activity;

2) arbitrary, deliberate indirect activity of the subject, aimed at providing a certain counteraction to the implementation of any actions or decisions that he regards as illegal, damaging his interests.

REPRESENTATIVENESS - a characteristic of the quality of the sample, the correspondence of the distribution of features obtained as a result of a selective study, to the distribution of the same features in the general population.

ROLE SOCIAL- associated with a certain position of the individual in the social system ( social status) set of rights and obligations. Any social structure of society can be represented as a certain status-role structure. Social roles are acquired by the individual in the process socialization. The role is only a separate aspect of the holistic behavior of the individual, which is a certain role set. An individual who always performs several (many) roles in society may encounter role conflict when he tries to adhere to the requirements of incompatible roles (for example, a student and a member of a friendly company). Sociologists distinguish between standardized, impersonal roles, which are built on the basis of rights and obligations and do not depend much on who performs them (official roles - a seller, cashier, etc.), and roles that are determined by the individual characteristics of their participants (roles of lovers) .

SYSTEM- a scientific concept that reflects a certain integrity, formed from a variety of elements that are in different relationships with each other and can be considered as indivisible units of analysis. There is the possibility of dismembering any object with the selection of certain elements within different systems. Among the many links of elements that form a unity, the most important are the system-forming ones, i.e. those that ensure their continuity as a necessary condition for a relatively separate functioning or development of the system.

The main principles of the system are: integrity (the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements and the non-derivation from the last properties of the whole, as well as the dependence of each element, property and relationship of the system on their place and function within the whole); structuredness (the ability to describe a system through a description of its structure, i.e. a network of connections and relations of the system; the conditionality of the system's behavior is not so much the behavior of its individual elements, but the properties of its structure); interdependence of the system and the environment (the system forms and manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment, while being the leading component of the interaction); hierarchy (the analyzed system can be considered as a component of a higher level system, and each element of the analyzed system can be considered as a lower level system); the plurality of the system description (for adequate knowledge of each system, due to its complexity, it is necessary to build many different models, each of which describes only a certain aspect of the system). Many interrelated elements that make up the unity exist in inseparable unity with the environment, in interaction with which the system manifests and forms its properties.

There are also static(for which the state remains unchanged over time) and dynamic(changing their state in time) systems. Distinguish statistical(when knowledge of the values ​​of the system variables at a given point in time allows us to establish its state at any subsequent or any previous point in time) and stochastic(when knowledge of the values ​​of variables allows only to predict the probability of the distribution of the values ​​of these variables at subsequent points in time) the nature of the interaction between the system and the environment.

The functioning of the system in the environment is based on a certain ordering of its elements, relations and connections. Structural and functional features of this orderliness (structuredness, organization) serve as the basis for identifying its subsystems in the system. The behavior of the system (as an ordered integral set of elements with structure and organization) in interaction with the environment can be reactive(i.e. determined in all major points by the influence of the environment) or active(i.e., be determined not only by the state and influence of the environment, but also by the system's own goals, aimed at transforming the environment, subordinating it to its needs).

In a system with active behavior, the nature of the goal and its relationship with the goals of the subsystems play the most important role (various options are possible here: from correspondence to contradiction between them). The most complex systems include goal-oriented (whose behavior is subject to the achievement of certain goals) and self-organizing (capable of modifying its structure in the process of functioning). Separate levels of the system determine certain aspects of its behavior, and integral functioning is the result of the interaction of all its sides and levels. In general, systems can be divided into material(integral sets of material objects) and abstract(products of human thought).

A special class of material living systems are systems social, extremely diverse in types and forms. An important feature of most complex systems, which primarily include social ones, is the transfer of information in them and the presence of control processes that ensure autonomy and purposefulness of behavior. There are also closed(in which only energy exchange is possible) and open(in which there is an exchange of energy and matter) systems. An open system is in a stationary state of mobile equilibrium, when all the macroscopic quantities of the system are unchanged, but the microscopic processes of input and output of substances are continuously ongoing. All open systems are characterized by self-stabilization, self-regulation and can maintain the current state as a result of the inclusion of control processes. There are also systems that are capable of constant self-renewal (self-referential), which perform the functions required by the structure of the system itself. In contrast to self-referential systems, such systems are singled out, the functions of which are predetermined from the outside. The order, balance and stability of the system are achieved by constant dynamic non-equilibrium processes.

SOCIAL SYSTEM - a structural element of social reality, a certain integral formation, the main elements of which are people, their connections and interactions.

SYSTEMS APPROACH- a set of general scientific methodological principles that require considering each object as an organic whole, in which the actual or expected change in one of the elements leads to a change in other elements and the entire system as a whole. These principles include:

1) determining the dependence of each element on its place and functions in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its parts;

2) analysis of the extent to which the behavior of the system is determined both by the characteristics of its individual elements and by the properties of its structure;

3) study of the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment, which ensures stability, dynamic balance of the object;

4) revealing the nature of the hierarchy inherent in this system;

5) studying the evolution of the system, presenting it as a developing whole, finding out how this object functions in a system of greater complexity;

6) a multilateral description of all possible manifestations of the system;

7) detection of the cyclic relationship of the genesis (history), structure and functions of the system.

The main stages of the implementation of a systematic approach:

a) the correct formulation of the purpose and objectives of the study, the definition of the object of study and the setting of criteria for its analysis;

b) exact selection of the system under consideration and its structuring;

c) the correct compilation of the mathematical model of the selected system, its parametrization, the establishment of dependencies between the entered parameters, the simplified description of the system by identifying subsystems and determining their hierarchy, the final fixation of goals and criteria.

The meaning of applying a systematic approach is that the created model of an abstract system helps to better solve research problems and transfer its results (according to certain rules) to a real object of study.

A systematic approach to social phenomena and processes involves two ways of studying relationships. In the first, simpler case, the study of the relationship between subsystems or elements of the system is carried out only in one, sociological aspect. The most difficult way of analysis is a dialectical, comprehensive approach, when these relationships are studied taking into account the totality of economic, social, political, legal, psychological, environmental, technological and other aspects of the life of society.

LAYER(stratum, slice) - a social community that acts as a unit of vertical division of the social structure of modern society. The most important features of the allocation of a layer (the economic situation of people, the division of labor, the amount of power, social prestige, etc.) are associated with the status position of members of this community in the social hierarchy.

OWN- one of the most important social institutions, a system of historically changing social relations that arise in production, exchange, distribution and consumption. These relations, being the main class-forming feature, express the nature of the appropriation of the means of production, labor power, and consumer goods. Appropriation acts as an activity, the content and purpose of which is the creation, increase and use of wealth. If labor creates a product, then appropriation makes it someone's property.

The interaction of people with things is only one side of the process of appropriation, its other side is social relations between people, mediated by things. Sustainable social ties that arise on the basis of the acquisition, use and distribution of wealth form a certain property order that determines the ownership of things, material and spiritual values ​​by individual individuals or legal entities, the right to such ownership, division and redistribution of property objects.

According to the degree of dominance over the object, the measure of its possession, there are full ownership (the undivided belonging of the thing to the subject), possession (partial possession, carried out under the auspices and control of the supreme owner) and use (the possibility of temporary disposal of the object). The leading role in any society belongs to the form of ownership of the means of production, which determines not only the nature of social labor, but also the specifics of the mode of production, relations of distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, social structure and relationships between different social groups, socio-political structure, etc. .d.

The main forms of ownership are public, group and private, the unique combination of which at each stage of the development of society and in each country depends not only on the nature of the means and objects of labor used, the characteristics of the social organization of labor (especially specialization and cooperation), but also on the ratio of large social groups (classes), the specifics of state forms, the historical and cultural traditions of the people.

Each level of development of the productive forces, i.e. personal and subject (technical and technological) elements that carry out the "exchange" between man and nature in the process of social production correspond to certain property relations that can contribute to the progress or stagnation of the economy. These relations are usually fixed and protected by the state in the interests of the ruling class, regulating the interactions between individuals or groups of people related to the possession, use and disposal of property belonging to various individuals, social institutions or society as a whole. The state can, through legislation, more or less actively influence the actual distribution of the material wealth of society and the specific methods of its use.

POPULATION SELECTIVE- part of the objects of the general population, selected using special methods to obtain information about the entire population as a whole. The need to determine the sampling population (sample) is due to the fact that most sociological studies are not continuous due to the large costs of various resources (financial, human, etc.). When forming a sample population, it is necessary to take into account the presence or absence of random(probabilistic) selection mechanism and objectivity in the selection. Taking into account the degree of manifestation of these factors, two main types of sampling are distinguished: random (mechanical, probabilistic) and purposeful.

A model of a sample of subjects (respondents) is usually formed using various methods of zoning, segmentation of the general population, dividing it into fragments, in which, according to certain rules, sampling units(for example, country, region, type of settlement, block, street, apartment, production team, school class, student group, family, etc.). There are also units of observation(for example, cases of violations of industrial discipline, performance scores, etc.).

Of great importance in sociology is the assessment of the quality of the sample, as well as the nature and magnitude of the errors that arise in its calculation. One of the criteria for assessing the quality of a sample is its representativeness. The substantiation of the type, volume (number of units) and structure of the sample is carried out in accordance with the nature of the tasks and hypotheses of the study, taking into account the available and available information, primarily statistical data and the results of pilot surveys.

TOTAL GENERAL- a set of various social elements (objects) that have some common characteristic and belong to a certain system, which is to be studied within the framework of a sociological research program. Due to the peculiarity of the subject area of ​​any study, the formation of the general population may have some features (in the sense of determining its spatio-temporal boundaries).

In each specific case, the sociologist decides whether there is a need to study all the elements (objects) of the general population, or some of them can be left out of the analysis without much loss (due to their inaccessibility, labor intensity, etc.) In this regard, in practice, the general the set is often narrowed down to the size of the actually surveyed set, which is represented by the sample. The spatial boundaries of the general population are determined not only by territorial and geographical parameters (for example, country, region, settlement, street, enterprise, etc.), but also by other characteristics (age, employment, etc.). Time limits fix the terms and period of the study (season, production cycle, etc.).

Often, the general population is considered not only from a quantitative (number of objects), but also from a qualitative side (the content of features that are of interest to the researcher). Usually, already in the formulation of the topic, the general population is limited to certain limits: social

If the condition for the existence of any social formation that develops as a result of the interaction of its members is its orderliness, i.e., at least the relative stability of such interaction, its organization, then an inevitable characteristic of any social system is also the manifestation of elements of social disorganization. Disorganization of the social system manifests itself in the appearance of types of behavior, the content of which deviates from the social norms that characterize the system as a whole. Disorganization, like deviant behavior, is inevitably inherent in any social system along with its foundation - social organization and social norms.

Deviant behavior is always (albeit to varying degrees) present wherever they act. These can be norms of behavior of a moral, ethical, aesthetic nature. Alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution are examples of types of behavior related to the types of social deviations within the framework of accepted systems of social assessments. Certain types of deviant behavior are regarded by the state as offenses, crimes.

Society did not exist and it is impossible to exist without social deviations and crime. Moreover, in any social system, in a society of any type, social deviations (including crime) perform a certain social function. This function is to ensure the possibility of deviations from the average, normal type, to maintain the necessary level of openness of the social system to inevitable changes.

In this sense, it is necessary to clarify the concept of "social disorganization". Its most obvious manifestation is social deviation. In the case of their disproportionate growth, the very existence of a social organization of this type is threatened. However, a disproportionately small number (or complete absence) of social deviations also leads to social disorganization, as it marks the loss by such an organization of the most important condition for its survival - the ability to adequate social changes, to timely adaptation. “In order to be able to express the individuality of an idealist whose dreams are ahead of time, it is necessary that there also be the possibility of expressing the individuality of a criminal who is below the level of his contemporary society. One is unthinkable without the other."

This circumstance also determines the functions of social control. An inevitable condition for the existence of any social organization is the presence of explicit, obvious definitions of a polar nature (good and evil, moral and immoral, permitted and criminal, etc.). Sanctions applied for negative (from the point of view of the dominant system of values) deviations serve as a clear, obvious manifestation of such values, their obvious confirmation. Visual confirmation of the boundaries of the accepted social norm is an important function of social control that ensures the stability of a given social organization. The problem is that when denoting such boundaries, it is important not to bring the system into a state of stagnation, to deprive it of another most important condition for survival - the ability to change, to update.

It is necessary to consider the question of how those limits of the objective social norm are determined, going beyond which entails the recognition of an act as a deviation, an anomaly, subject to appropriate influence. To resolve this issue, it should be taken into account that the concept of a social norm includes two components: a) an objective (material) characteristic of a certain type of behavior that takes place in objective reality; b) its subjective (social) assessment in terms of desirability or undesirability, usefulness or harmfulness for society and the state.

It is this kind of assessment that serves as an external expression of the boundaries of the social norm, beyond which lies the area of ​​social deviations. The material essence of a certain kind of human activity and their social assessment are inseparable elements of the social norm, but they are not connected by a rigid connection. This relationship is mobile, since the indicated social assessments of specific objective characteristics may, on the one hand, be late, lag behind the development, changes in the essence of social phenomena; on the other hand, such a social assessment may change depending on social (subjective) factors, in the course of the evolution of sociocultural values. It is through the evaluation component that the role of the political component in determining the social norm is manifested. The evaluative element of the social norm also embodies the basic social, religious, ethical and other values ​​and categories of public consciousness.

It is important to emphasize that this fusion of the objective (material) and evaluative, subjective (social) is manifested in specific acts of action by real individuals, is a set of socially significant actions that are not indifferent to society, and therefore receive an appropriate assessment. This assessment is usually embodied in a rule of law, in which the description of a behavioral act (the disposition of the norm), deviation from the norm (the hypothesis of the norm) and the type of legal response (the sanction of the norm) are merged. The assessment of the norm, expressed in an imperative form, becomes a measure of behavior (for the individual) and a measure of behavior assessment (for the state). The measure of behavior is guided by the individual, the assessment belongs to society (the state).

The problem, however, is to ensure that the measure of behavior embodied in the rule of law is in optimal proportion with the actual behavioral acts that form the social norm. At the same time, one should keep in mind the difference that exists between the social norm and social ideals, i.e., ideas about the desired state of social phenomena (processes, objects, subjects, etc.), which has not yet been achieved, but the achievement of which (from the point of view of dominant social values) is the goal of social development.

Offenses and crime

The growing social disorganization leads to the loss by the social institutions of a given society of the opportunity to realize the main function - the satisfaction of a specific social need. An unsatisfied social need leads to spontaneous manifestations of normatively unregulated activities that seek to fill the function of legitimate institutions, but at the expense of existing norms and rules. In extreme manifestations, such activity can manifest itself in illegal, criminal actions.

Crime that arises in connection with the dysfunction of social institutions is predominantly instrumental, that is, aimed at achieving a specific goal, and structured, i.e. with. internally interconnected. Its features are the planning of criminal activity, systematicity, elements of organization, i.e., the distribution of criminal roles. Similar features of structured crime are associated with its function - illegally satisfying a need that is not recognized or not adequately provided by social institutions. Such a narrow functionality, ie. the satisfaction of a particular social need leads at the same time to the disorganization of more general social systems.

Dysfunctions of political institutions that grow out of the disorganization of society, often associated with a change in forms of government, in the face of a weakening of the legitimacy of state power, can cause an increase in political, t. s. anti-state crimes (forcible seizure or retention of power, violent change in the constitutional order, public calls for such a change, terrorism, etc.). Crime is functionally connected with the course of social processes that determine the nature and direction of social development, the content of social changes.

Modernization, stability and political violence

As the dominant type of social change, the process of modernization is considered, which covers, to varying degrees, the countries of the world, divided according to this criterion into developed (modernized), developing and traditional countries. As indicators of the level of modernization are considered: the percentage of urban residents; percentage of gross national income derived from agriculture; the percentage of those employed in agriculture; per capita income; prevalence of mass media and communication; the level of participation in politics (voting, stability of the executive branch); social benefits (education, literacy, life expectancy). These are the main conditions that affect the level of political violence in society.

As a general rule, modernized countries exhibit less levels of political unrest and violence than those found in less developed countries. Economic modernization, modernized media, health, education, and political participation are associated with lower levels of political violence.

Political violence is directly related to the level of stability of a given society. On a scale ranked by the degree of increase in the level of political instability, the following indicators of the growth of instability are noted: from 0 (maximum stability) to 6 (maximum instability). Zero level - a sign of a normal level of political stability - is considered to be regularly held elections; the first level of growth of instability is frequent changes (layoffs or resignations) of the government; the next sign of increasing instability is the demonstrations and the arrests that accompany them; an even more serious indicator of the level of instability is the murder (or attempt on the life) of political figures (except for the head of state); a further indicator of the growth of this level is the assassination (or attempt on the life) of the head of state or terrorism; the next level is a coup d'état or guerrilla warfare; the highest (seventh) level is civil war or mass executions.

Political development and levels of violence

The level of political violence also depends on the nature of the current regime. The nature of the regime can be assessed by the degree of predominance in the process of regulating social relations, either coercive methods or permissive methods (coercive regime and permissive regime). The categories that make it possible to judge such characteristics of the political regime in a particular country are data on the presence of legal competition, competition in the political system (multi-party system, etc.), on the level of restriction of freedoms of citizens by the police. As a general rule, countries with the most permissive regime are characterized by the least violence. Political violence increases with the growth of the coerciveness of the regime, but decreases somewhat under conditions of extreme, maximum coercion of such a regime.

The level of political development is also related to the level of violence. Indicators of political development are indicators of the participation of the population in political issues, government decisions and political groupings, as well as the existence of an influential legislature and the level of freedom of the press. In conditions where the military or a political party play only their own, specialized role in politics, there are conditions for democracy and pluralism. In conditions when these structures monopolize the sphere of politics, conditions are created for the domination of the authoritarian elite.

Political development associated with the growth of democratic structures is closely related to economic and social development. The higher the level of political development of society, the higher the level of income and literacy of the population. Trends in political violence look different. With the growth of the economic and social sectors of society, the political system also changes. Such changes, the development of the economy and the social sphere lead to an increase in social conflicts and political violence, and a decrease in the level of political stability. However, when a country reaches full modernization (an important indicator is the literacy rate of the population), and the economy reaches the level of mass consumption (per capita income far exceeds the level sufficient only for subsistence), political stability increases and the level of violence falls.

Thus, the legitimacy of power, the characteristics and pace of social change, the degree of modernization of society, the nature of the regime, the level of political development - these are the sociological characteristics that determine the conditions for the emergence, state and trends of political crime, revealing its derivative nature, its dependence on the state of the political institutions of a given society. and the social processes that take place within it. At the same time, modernized countries are characterized by lower levels of political unrest and violence, while less developed countries are characterized by higher levels.

The nature of the political regime and violence

The level of political violence depends on the position of the given country on the scale "permissive regime - prohibitive regime". Permissive countries have the lowest level of political violence. The latter increases with the growth of the coerciveness of the regime, but decreases to some extent under conditions of extreme coercion. The same trend is shown by the indicator of political instability. In contrast, the level of modernization falls as one moves from a highly permissive regime (the highest level of modernization) to a highly coercive regime (the lowest level of modernization).

Democratic countries are characterized by a low level of political indignation, although the governments of countries with a repressive, totalitarian regime are able to effectively suppress open expressions of popular discontent. It is governments in countries with a medium level of political development and a moderately permissive regime that face the greatest political indignation.

Economic crime

Economic crime is a phenomenon that occurs during and in connection with the interaction between the state and the economy. As a result of this interaction, state structures that have a political and legal resource of power intersect with economic institutions, subjects of economic relations that have material (property, monetary) resources. Fundamental in this respect is the scope of the state's powers in the sphere of economic relations, where the economy, property relations serve as an object, and the state is the subject of economic regulation.

The liquidation of the institution of private property in Soviet Russia, its delegization created a situation where the state was both the owner and the sole regulator of property relations. The function of possession (possession, disposal) merged with the function of control and regulation; The violent methods of the command economy ensured the absolute monopoly of state property, complete, uncontrolled freedom to dispose of it by agents of political power. Where there is no separation of the object and the subject of regulation, where they are merged together, regulation ends and arbitrariness begins, since real regulation involves an expediently oriented restriction of the activity of the object of regulation on the part of the regulatory subject on the basis of principles, rules and norms that are binding on both of them.

In reality, private property in Soviet Russia was not completely eliminated; along with market relations, it continued to exist in fact, illegally, being a real and inseparable feature of the economy, constituting the backbone of economic crime within the framework of the legislation of that period. The illegal position of a private entrepreneur in the economy has led to the emergence of a special kind of symbiosis of political power holders (resource - power, violence) and an illegal private owner (resource - money), in which the economic entity buys the very possibility of existence through criminal means. For their part, in such a situation, the holders of power become dependent on illegal "tributaries", there is a vital interest in maintaining their illegal status - a guarantee of receiving an abundant "tribute". The legalization of private property deprives the holders of power of such a way of enrichment.

Legalization of private property, development of market relations in Russian society in the 1990s. introduce new elements into the interaction between the economy and the state. Normal, legal market relations are threatened by two dangers. The first is in the form of criminal encroachments by state officials who abuse power and trade in their right to make decisions in the economic sphere. The merging of figures of illegal, criminal business (drugs, arms trade, smuggling, etc.) with patrons from among corrupt officials who mutually feed and protect each other remains. The second danger is from the market participants themselves, those who seek to make a profit not as a result of fair competition, but by obtaining unjustified privileges and benefits through bribing officials.

Under these conditions, the illegal gain of some means a corresponding loss of others, since the purchased privilege shifts benefits, the volume of which is always limited, in favor of the bribe-giver at the expense of those who do not give bribes, or puts the briber in a more profitable compared to others, but not deserved them a position. The market economy is undermined by consumer fraud, profit-making by hiding from taxes, as a result of conspiracy to fix prices on the market, etc. Finally, there may be a complete rejection of competition in cases of criminal encroachment on the property of a competitor or on his life (contract killings).

Without achieving real dominance in the market of legal, influential private capital, a serious growth in the productive economy is impossible. The achievement of such dominance leads to two consequences of sociocriminological significance. The marginal (secondary, marginal, subordinate) position of private capital leads to the fact that the relations between economic entities established in the course of economic interactions are unsystematic, often random, and largely chaotic. In such a situation, there is a tendency to use the current situation at once, not restrained by the need to take into account the further consequences of the existing interaction, there is a desire to get the maximum gain by any, including illegal, criminal ways (get a loan and hide, establish a fictitious company and disappear, appropriate profits by robbing partners, ruining shareholders, etc.).

Only under conditions of domination of private capital in the economy does the regularity come into play, according to which the maximum profit is achieved not by economic robbery, but by stable, forward-looking production and trade activities. Only under these conditions does it become obvious that real economic success depends on the orientation towards stable, predictable actions of partners, that honesty is economically beneficial, and a reliable business reputation is a condition for obtaining real profits that far exceed criminal “booty”. Under these conditions, the algorithm of market entrepreneurship is implemented: credit (loan) + investment (investment) = profit.

In translation, the word "credit" means "trust". This moral category is built into the structure of stable market relations. The initial, elementary cell of market relations (the exchange of money for goods or goods for money) has an important feature. The specified exchange can never be synchronous, instantaneous (one counterparty sends money and then receives the goods or sends, transfers the goods and then receives the money), a time gap is inevitable here, someone must trust someone, be sure of the guaranteed continuation of this interaction , in inviolability of the respective contractual relations. The prospects for a successful fight against economic crime, therefore, are directly related to the formation and development of legal private capital and a stable market in the economy.

Control

Study questions:

1. Deviant behavior as a subject of study in the humanities and natural sciences. The concept of deviant and delinquent behavior. criminal behavior.

2. Deviation and the normative structure of society. Concepts

deviant behavior of C. Lombroso and W. Sheldon.

3. Sociological explanation of the deviation of E. Durkheim, the theory of anomie. Study of R. Merton's deviation.

4. Social control in society and its methods.

5. Deviance and processes of social development.

The problem of deviant (deviant) behavior is given great attention in various sciences. In addition to sociology and psychology, jurists, anthropologists, physicians, historians and other scientists are engaged in this area. Deviant behavior - it is behavior that deviates from the norms of behavior accepted in a given society. Deviation from the norm is observed both in the negative and in the positive direction.

Any behavior of an individual in society that does not correspond to generally accepted norms (written and unwritten), is not approved by society and causes condemnation, is called deviant (deviant).

Any sharp deviation in the behavior of an individual or a group of individuals from generally accepted norms, on the part of society, causes a reaction of opposition, obstruction, suppression, because. in its extreme manifestations, such behavior threatens the stability of society or its individual institutions.

Control of deviation in society is carried out using certain sanctions, norms and rules, which are implemented within the framework of the function of social control.

Usually in society, the control of deviation is asymmetric, a positive deviation is approved, a negative deviation is condemned.

Accurate statistics of deviant behavior in society do not exist, but most members of society demonstrate individual patterns of deviant behavior during their lives. There are individual and collective forms of deviance. Frequent cases and diverse forms of deviant behavior that a person demonstrates, as a rule, speak of a conflict between the person and society. The types of deviant behavior include alcoholism, drug addiction, mental disorders, prostitution, crime, etc. Usually, deviance is a kind of attempt by a person to get away from problems, troubles, insecurity and fear. Sometimes deviance may indicate a person's desire for originality, creativity, an attempt to overcome the standardized, conservative foundations of society, community or group.

In a broad sense, deviance covers all abnormal actions, in a narrow sense, deviant behavior can be divided into three forms:

Violation of social rules

deviant,

delinquent,

criminal behavior.

Deviant behavior is always relative in time and space, since norms, traditions, customs change over time and from society to society. Delinquency (violation of the rule of law) is always absolute. As a rule, a deviant act matures in the mind of a person gradually; deviation can be considered as insufficiency and unsatisfactory (defects) of socialization processes.

Neil Smelser (American sociologist) defines deviance as the conformity or inconsistency of an individual's actions with social expectations. Various scientists have attempted to find the causes and explain deviant behavior. At the end of the 19th century, the scientist, doctor C. Lombroso made the first attempt to link the presence of criminal behavior and certain traits of the individual; later, in the 20th century, W. Sheldon, a psychologist and physician, focused on the connection between body structure and deviance. In the course of further research, these concepts were not confirmed and were subsequently supplanted by new modern concepts.

The sociological explanation of deviation comes down to establishing a connection between deviation and the influence of social and cultural aspects of public life. E. Durkheim was the first to offer a sociological explanation of deviant behavior. In his works "On the division of social labor" and "Suicide: a sociological study" he explored the normal and dysfunctional, abnormal state of society - anomie. This is such a state of society when its elements disagree, basic values ​​are lost, a wave of conflicts is growing, ideals and norms are lost. People lose interest in life, uncertainty and disorientation increase, deviance in behavior is actively manifested.

The social experience of a person does not correspond to the norms of society, disorientation and disorganization in the behavior of the individual increases. R. Merton argues that the origins of deviance are rooted in the discrepancy between the goals of culture and socially approved methods of achieving them.

Having created a certain typology of personalities, in accordance with their attitude to the goals and means of their implementation, R. Merton identified the following types of personalities: conformist, innovator, ritualist, isolated type, rebel. Comprehension of deviance in their works is carried out by M. Weber, T. Parsons, P. Sorokin, R. Dahrendorf and other scientists. The concept of social control in society includes a certain set of norms, rules, values, actions, sanctions used to prevent, prevent and eliminate deviance.

Since most people in the process of socialization have formed a commitment to social norms and patterns of behavior, it can be said that social control promotes social and personal conformity using a system of positive and negative sanctions. Usually there are formal and informal methods of social control.

T. Parsons distinguished 3 methods of social control: isolation, isolation and rehabilitation. The main functions of social control are protective and stabilization. Typologizing the methods of social control, one can single out its soft and hard forms, formal and informal, direct and indirect, as well as general and detailed control.

Considering modern society and analyzing its dysfunctional states, it is necessary to highlight the tendency of some weakening of norms, especially those that regulate the moral aspect in the behavior of the individual, and at the same time, new norms and rules are formed in society that affect the individual and society as a whole, the forms and methods of social control.

One can also note the emergence of new forms of deviant behavior and new norms and values ​​characteristic of new stages in the development of society. Society is becoming more multifaceted, tolerance and respect are becoming the new state of society. Only the path of love, respect and patience will allow society to enter a new round of development.

Questions for self-examination:

1. List the causes of deviation in society.

2. Why did the problems of deviation attract and continue to attract the attention of scientists - representatives of various sciences?

3. Reveal the causes of deviance among the youth.

4. Name the social institutions that perform the functions of social control.

5. How is social control related to the norms and values ​​of society?

6. Define the difference between tolerance and conformity.

GLOSSARY

Group- social integrity, which is characterized by the same conditions and characteristic features of functioning.

Deviation- (from Latin deviatio - deviations) deviation of the behavior of individuals from generally accepted norms and rules.

conformism- (from lat. confornis - similar, similar) - opportunism, passive acceptance of the existing order, prevailing opinions, lack of one's own position.