Consequences of embarrassment. Russia in the 17th century after the Time of Troubles

The Time of Troubles (Trouble) is a deep spiritual, economic, social, and foreign policy crisis that befell Russia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The turmoil coincided with the dynastic crisis and the struggle of boyar groups for power.

Causes of Trouble:

1. Severe systemic crisis of the Moscow state, largely associated with the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Contradictory domestic and foreign policies have led to the destruction of many economic structures. Weakened key institutions and led to loss of life.

2. Important western lands were lost (Yam, Ivan-gorod, Korela)

3. Sharply escalated social conflicts within the Muscovite state, which engulfed all societies.

4. Intervention of foreign states (Poland, Sweden, England, etc. regarding land issues, territory, etc.)

5. Dynastic Crisis:

1584 After the death of Ivan the Terrible, his son Fyodor took the throne. The actual ruler of the state was the brother of his wife Irina boyar Boris Fedorovich Godunov. In 1591, under mysterious circumstances, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry, died in Uglich. In 1598 Fedor dies, the dynasty of Ivan Kalita is stopped.

Course of events:

1. 1598-1605 The key figure of this period is Boris Godunov. He was an energetic, ambitious, capable statesman. In difficult conditions - economic ruin, difficult international situation - he continued the policy of Ivan the Terrible, but with less cruel measures. Godunov led a successful foreign policy. Under him, there was a further advance to Siberia, the southern regions of the country were mastered. Strengthened Russian positions in the Caucasus. After a long war with Sweden in 1595, the Treaty of Tyavzinsky was concluded (near Ivan-gorod). Russia regained the lost lands on the Baltic coast - Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye, Korela. The attack of the Crimean Tatars on Moscow was prevented. In 1598, Godunov, with a 40,000-strong noble militia, personally led a campaign against Khan Kazy Giray, who did not dare to enter Russian lands. Fortifications were being built in Moscow (White City, Zemlyanoy Gorod), in border towns in the south and west of the country. With his active participation in 1598, a patriarchate was established in Moscow. The Russian Church became equal in relation to other Orthodox churches.

To overcome economic ruin, B. Godunov provided some benefits to the nobility and townspeople, at the same time, taking further steps to strengthen the feudal exploitation of the broad masses of the peasantry. To do this, in the late 1580s - early 1590s. B. Godunov's government conducted a census of peasant households. After the census, the peasants finally lost the right to move from one landowner to another. The scribe books, in which all the peasants were recorded, became the legal basis for their serfdom from the feudal lords. The bonded serf was obliged to serve his master throughout his life.

In 1597, a decree was issued on the search for fugitive peasants. This law introduced "lesson years" - a five-year period for detecting and returning fugitive peasants, along with their wives and children, to their masters, for whom they were listed according to scribe books.

In February 1597, a decree was issued on bonded serfs, according to which one who had served for free hire for more than six months turned into a bonded serf and could be released only after the death of the master. These measures could not but aggravate class contradictions in the country. The masses were dissatisfied with the policies of the Godunov government.

In 1601-1603. there was a crop failure in the country, famine and food riots begin. Hundreds of people died every day in Russia in the city and in the countryside. As a result of two lean years, the price of bread rose 100 times. According to contemporaries, almost a third of the population perished in Russia during these years.

Boris Godunov, in search of a way out of this situation, allowed the distribution of bread from the state bins, allowed the serfs to leave their masters and look for opportunities to feed themselves. But all these measures were not successful. Rumors spread among the population that people were being punished for violating the order of succession to the throne, for the sins of Godunov, who had seized power. Mass uprisings began. The peasants, together with the urban poor, united in armed detachments and attacked the boyar and landlord households.

In 1603, an uprising of serfs and peasants broke out in the center of the country, led by Khlopko Kosolap. He managed to gather significant forces and moved with them to Moscow. The uprising was brutally suppressed, and Khlopko was executed in Moscow. Thus began the first peasant war. In the peasant war of the beginning of the XVII century. three large periods can be distinguished: the first (1603 - 1605), the most important event of which was the uprising of Cotton; the second (1606 - 1607) - a peasant uprising led by I. Bolotnikov; third (1608-1615) - the decline of the peasant war, accompanied by a number of powerful performances by peasants, townspeople, Cossacks

During this period, False Dmitry I appeared in Poland, who received the support of the Polish gentry and entered the territory of the Russian state in 1604. He was supported by many Russian boyars, as well as the masses, who hoped to ease their situation after the “legitimate tsar” came to power. After the unexpected death of B. Godunov (April 13, 1605), False Dmitry, at the head of the army that had gone over to his side, on June 20, 1605 solemnly entered Moscow and was proclaimed tsar.

Once in Moscow, False Dmitry was in no hurry to fulfill the obligations given to the Polish magnates, since this could hasten his overthrow. Having ascended the throne, he confirmed the legislative acts adopted before him, which enslaved the peasants. Having made a concession to the nobles, he aroused the discontent of the boyar nobility. Lost faith in the "good king" and the masses. Discontent intensified in May 1606, when two thousand Poles arrived in Moscow for the wedding of the impostor with the daughter of the Polish governor Marina Mniszek. In the Russian capital, they behaved like in a conquered city: they drank, rioted, raped, and robbed.

On May 17, 1606, the boyars, led by Prince Vasily Shuisky, plotted, raising the population of the capital to revolt. False Dmitry I was killed.

2. 1606-1610 This stage is associated with the reign of Vasily Shuisky, the first "boyar tsar". He ascended the throne immediately after the death of False Dmitry I by decision of the Red Square, giving a cross-kissing record of a good attitude towards the boyars. On the throne, Vasily Shuisky faced many problems (the uprising of Bolotnikov, False Dmitry II, Polish troops, famine).

Meanwhile, seeing that the idea with the impostors failed, and using as a pretext the conclusion of an alliance between Russia and Sweden, Poland, which was at war with Sweden, declared war on Russia. In September 1609, King Sigismund III laid siege to Smolensk, then, having defeated the Russian troops, moved to Moscow. Swedish troops seized the Novgorod lands instead of help. So in the north-west of Russia began the Swedish intervention.

Under these conditions, a revolution took place in Moscow. Power passed into the hands of the government of the seven boyars ("Seven Boyars"). When in August 1610 the Polish troops of Hetman Zolkiewski approached Moscow, the boyars-rulers, who were afraid of a popular uprising in the capital itself, in an effort to preserve their power and privileges, went to treason. They invited 15-year-old Vladislav, the son of the Polish king, to the Russian throne. A month later, the boyars secretly let Polish troops into Moscow at night. It was a direct betrayal of national interests. The threat of foreign enslavement hung over Russia.

3. 1611-1613 Patriarch Hermogenes in 1611 initiated the creation of a zemstvo militia near Ryazan. In March it laid siege to Moscow, but failed because of internal disagreements. The second militia was created in autumn, in Novgorod. It was headed by K. Minin and D. Pozharsky. Letters were sent around the cities with an appeal to support the militia, whose task was to liberate Moscow from the invaders and create a new government. The militias called themselves free people, at the head was the Zemstvo Council and temporary orders. On October 26, 1612, the militia managed to take the Moscow Kremlin. By decision of the boyar duma, it was dissolved.

Outcomes of Troubles:

1. The total death toll is equal to one third of the country's population.

2. Economic catastrophe, the financial system was destroyed, transport communications were destroyed, vast territories were taken out of agricultural circulation.

3. Territorial losses (Chernigov land, Smolensk land, Novgorod-Severskaya land, Baltic territories).

4. Weakening of the positions of domestic merchants and entrepreneurs and strengthening of foreign merchants.

5. Emergence of a new royal dynasty On February 7, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov. He had to solve three main problems - the restoration of the unity of the territories, the restoration of the state mechanism and the economy.

As a result of peace negotiations in Stolbov in 1617, Sweden returned the Novgorod land to Russia, but retained the Izhora land with the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Russia has lost its only outlet to the Baltic Sea.

In 1617 - 1618. another attempt by Poland to seize Moscow and elevate Prince Vladislav to the Russian throne failed. In 1618, in the village of Deulino, a truce was signed with the Commonwealth for 14.5 years. Vladislav did not renounce his claims to the Russian throne, referring to the treaty of 1610. Smolensk and Seversk lands remained behind the Commonwealth. Despite the difficult terms of the peace with Sweden and the truce with Poland, a long-awaited respite came for Russia. The Russian people defended the independence of their Motherland.

Literature

1. History of Russia: textbook / A. S. Orlov [and others]. - M.: Prospekt, 2009. - S. 85 - 117.

2. Pavlenko, N.I. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861: textbook. for universities / N. I. Pavlenko. - M.: Higher. school, 2004. - S. 170 -239.

After the Time of Troubles, a restoration process was going on in Russia for almost three decades. Only from the middle of the XVII century. new, progressive tendencies begin to appear in the economy. The fertile lands of the Black Earth center and the Middle Volga region are involved in the economic turnover. Due to their relatively high yield, they provide some surplus of grain. This surplus is sold to less fertile regions, allowing their population to gradually move on to other activities that are more appropriate for local climatic conditions. There is a process of zoning - the economic specialization of various regions. In the northwest, flax and other industrial crops are cultivated. The northeast begins to specialize in cattle breeding. Peasant crafts are also developing noticeably in these regions: in the northwest - weaving, in the northeast - tanning. The growing exchange of agricultural and industrial products, the development of commodity-money relations lead to the gradual formation of the internal market (the process is completed only by the end of the 17th century). Trade in the 17th century was mainly of a fair nature. Some fairs were of national significance: Makaryevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Irbitskaya (Southern Urals) and Svenskaya (near Bryansk). Manufactories have become a new phenomenon in the economy - large-scale production with a division of labor, so far mostly manual. The number of manufactories in Russia in the 17th century. did not exceed 30; the only industry in which they arose was metallurgy.

In social terms, the nobility is becoming an increasingly significant force. By continuing to give land to servicemen for their service, the government avoids taking them away. Increasingly, estates are inherited, i.e. become more and more like fiefdoms. Indeed, in the 17th century this process has not yet been backed up by special decrees. The peasantry in 1649 was finally attached to the land by the Council Code: St. George's Day was canceled forever; the search for fugitives became indefinite. This enslavement was still formal in nature - the state did not have the strength to really attach the peasantry to the land. Until the beginning of the XVIII century. they wandered around Russia in search of a better share of the gang of "walking people". The authorities are taking measures to support the "trading estate", primarily its privileged elite - the guests. In 1653, the Trade Charter was adopted, replacing many small trade duties with one, in the amount of 5% of the price of the goods sold. Competitors of Russian merchants - foreigners - had to pay 8%, and according to the New Trade Charter of 1667 - 10%.

In terms of political development of the XVII century. was the time of the formation of the autocratic system. Tsarist power gradually weakened and abolished the class-representative bodies that limited it. Zemsky Sobors, to whose support after the Time of Troubles the first Romanov, Mikhail, appealed almost every year, cease to be convened under his successor Alexei (the last sobor was convened in 1653). The tsarist government skillfully takes the boyar duma under its control, introducing into it duma clerks and nobles (up to 30% of the composition), who unconditionally supported the tsar. Proof of the increased strength of tsarist power and the weakening of the boyars was the abolition in 1682 of parochialism. The command bureaucracy, which served as a support for the tsar, is being strengthened and expanded. The order system becomes cumbersome and clumsy: by the end of the 17th century. there were more than 40 orders, some of them were of a functional nature - Ambassadorial, Local, Streletsky, etc., and part of the territorial - Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc. An attempt to control this colossus with the help of the order of Secret Affairs was unsuccessful. Locally in the 17th century elective governing bodies are finally obsolete. All power passes into the hands of the voevodas, appointed from the center and living on feeding at the expense of the local population. In the second half of the XVII century. in Russia, regiments of the new system appear, in which "eager people" - volunteers - served for a salary. At the same time, the Eagle was built on the Volga - the first ship capable of withstanding sea navigation.

There was a cathedral code, which spelled out the final enslavement of Russian peasants (namely, all property and land goes to the landowner, who becomes the owner of the peasants)

The history of Russia is full of tragic events, many of which, having affected millions of people, predetermined the fate of our people for decades and centuries to come. These include the so-called Troubles. The causes, stages, consequences and main results of it are discussed below.

Russia from 1584 to 1598

According to most researchers, the story about the causes and consequences of the Troubles should begin with the death of Ivan the Terrible. This event not only marked the end of the reign of the stern autocrat, during which many reforms were carried out in Russia that radically changed the way of life of the population and the system of government, but also revived the hopes of the boyars for the return of their former power. Fyodor, the son of Ivan, who reigned on the throne at the age of 27, was in poor health and incapable of "sovereign power." In addition, he had no heirs: in a marriage with Irina Godunova, Fedor had an only daughter who died at the age of 9 months. Thus, after the death of the offspring of Ivan the Terrible, the dynasty of the Moscow Ruriks, who descended from Ivan Kalita, ended.

Despite this, during the reign of the son of Theodore, a patriarchate was established in our country, and as a result of the Russian-Swedish war, Koporye, Yama, Ivangorod and Korela were returned.

Beginning of the Time of Troubles

After the death of Fyodor the First and long palace intrigues, Boris Godunov was elevated to the throne. This humble nobleman began his career at court in 1570 as a guardsman, and thanks to his marriage to the daughter of Malyuta Skuratov and the marriage of his sister, who became the wife of Fyodor the First, he made a brilliant career that aroused envy among well-born boyars. In general, scientists believe that the events and consequences of the Time of Troubles were largely connected with the desire of rich nobles to weaken centralized power and return to the times when they single-handedly ruled in their possessions.

Be that as it may, during the reign of Fyodor the First, Boris Godunov was the true ruler of the country, therefore it was he who was blamed for the tragic death of Tsarevich Dmitry, who was to take the throne if his brother Fyodor had died childless. Realizing the precariousness of his position, Boris sought to crack down on the boyars who were in opposition to him. Things got to the point that the king did not allow young princes to marry, who, due to their nobility, could claim the throne, in order to stop their childbirth.

Hunger

Calling the causes and consequences of the turmoil, one cannot fail to mention the crop failures of 1601-1602. Their consequences were catastrophic, as the price of bread rose 100 times. Despite all the efforts of Tsar Boris, who not only distributed money to the poor, but also opened the royal barns to the needy, rumors began to spread among the population that all misfortunes were a heavenly punishment for the crime of Boris, who killed an innocent child - Tsarevich Dimitri. As a result of all these events, an uprising broke out under the leadership of Khlopok in the southern regions and in 20 central counties, which was brutally suppressed by the tsarist troops.

The appearance of False Dmitry

Usually, when talking about the events and consequences of the Time of Troubles, it is customary to dwell in particular detail on the history associated with the appearance on the historical stage of such a character as False Dmitry the First. Who this young man really was, who decided to impersonate the deceased son of Ivan the Terrible, is unknown to this day. There are three versions according to which he could be: the monk Grigory Otrepyev, the illegitimate son of the former Polish king, or an unknown Italian monk. Moreover, most researchers tend to the first version. For the first time, a man who calls himself Tsarevich Dimitry tried to “discover” himself in Kyiv, pretending to be mortally ill, and declaring his “royal origin” in confession. However, he was shown the door, and False Dmitry went to the Zaporizhzhya Sich, where he was trained in the art of war.

False Dmitry in Poland

In 1603, the impostor ended up in Poland and once again played the comedy “Confession of a terminally ill person.” This time, the seeds of lies fell on fertile ground, and soon he was accepted in the highest circles of Poland as the heir to the Russian throne. Soon, False Dmitry fell in love with Maria Mnishek, the daughter of an influential Polish magnate, and converted to Catholicism. It was during this period that the prerequisites were laid for the fact that the consequences of the Time of Troubles had an impact on relations between Europe and Russia for many decades. The fact is that “Demetrius” was introduced to the Polish king and promised, if he was helped to ascend the throne, to help spread the papal faith. In addition, the “heir to the Russian throne” expressed his intention to achieve the merger of Russia with the Commonwealth.

War with Poland

In 1604, False Dmitry, with an army received from the Poles, invaded the territory of Russia. The royal warriors were sent against him, and a protracted war began, in the battles of which, with varying success, one side or the other won. In the midst of these events, Boris Godunov died, and his successor Fyodor Borisovich was overthrown and killed. As a result, in June 1605 the army of False Dmitry, practically without resistance, entered Moscow. However, the triumph of the impostor did not last long, and he was killed by the rebellious Muscovites in May 1606.

Continuation of the Troubles

After the expulsion of the Poles, Vasily Shuisky ascended the throne, but the situation did not change for the better, since in the summer of 1607 rumors spread that False Dmitry was alive: another impostor appeared in the province. After that, a series of wars began, for which the Moscow authorities even had to call on the help of the Swedes. The protracted military conflict with the Poles led to a coup in the capital, and the Seven Boyars reigned. The misfortunes did not end there, and in 1610 the boyars recognized the son of the Polish king Sigismund, Vladislav, as their king. A few months later, False Dmitry II was killed, and a national liberation movement began to form in Russia. As a result, Moscow was liberated, the invaders were expelled, and the Zemsky Sobor of 1613 elected a tsar, Mikhail Romanov, for the first time in the history of our country.

Consequences of the Troubles of the 17th century

At the end of all the misfortunes, Russia lost vast territories. These were probably the most painful consequences of the Time of Troubles in Russia. In particular, Smolensk was lost, a significant part of Karelia was captured by the Swedes, and Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea.

However, the consequences of the Time of Troubles for the formation of Russian statehood as a whole can be called beneficial, because it was after these events that the Romanov dynasty reigned in Russia, whose worthy representatives worked tirelessly to turn our country into a world power.

Introduction

By History

on the topic: "Russia after the Troubles: the need for change"

Completed by student: Serebryakov Konstantin Nikolaevich

Group: EN-121103

Head: Rogova Elena Mikhailovna

Yekaterinburg

Introduction…………………………………………………………….………..………3

1. Development of Russia after the Time of Troubles…………………….………..……….5

2. Russia on the threshold of reforms…………………………………………….…………….11

Conclusion………………………………………………………….……………………15

References……………………………………………………………………17

Relevance of the topic. In Russia in the 17th century, events took place that had a huge impact on the entire subsequent history of the country - the formation of absolutism, the church schism, the formation of serfdom, the penetration of Western culture, the militarization of the state, the formation of Russian national culture, etc.

The Time of Troubles is usually called the events taking place in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. At that time, social and political upheavals posed a threat to the existence of the Russian state.

In Soviet science, when clarifying the causes of the events of the early 17th century, much attention was paid to social contradictions, and measures to enslave peasants were called as the causes of the Troubles - the introduction of reserved years from 1581 and the introduction of a complete ban on crossings by Boris Godunov. But these were measures that really testified to the formation of serfdom in Russia, and the dissatisfaction of the peasants with their position was a constantly acting factor.

At the beginning of the 17th century, the explosion of the socio-political struggle that took place was determined not by the enslavement of the peasants, but by the combination of several unfavorable social, political and other circumstances, the consequences of a famine, a dynastic crisis, and sharp political contradictions in ruling circles. It is also necessary to take into account the impact of the results of the oprichnina of Ivan IV, which caused unjustified ambitious aspirations of some and dissatisfaction with other layers of service people. It is also necessary to take into account the political activity of the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden directed against Russia. The Cossacks were also a destructive force, which was an insufficiently organized and very active mass with anarchist sentiments.

Thus, the main reasons for the socio-political struggle in Russia, which unfolded at the beginning of the 17th century and was defined as the Time of Troubles, were: further enslavement of the peasants, a dynastic crisis in connection with the termination of the Rurik dynasty in 1598, dissatisfaction of some sections of the ruling classes with the previous government policy, aggravation relations between the Cossacks and the government, which sought to curtail their rights and freedom. The development of the Time of Troubles was also influenced to a certain extent by the economic crisis in the country, which was a consequence of the oprichnina policy of Ivan IV.

At present, this period in the history of Russia is defined as one of the central ones in our history. R.G. Skrynnikov, V.N. Glazyev, A.P. Sedov, E.V. Anisimov pay great attention to the Time of Troubles in their research. Foreign historians, such as G. Weikhard, N.Sh. Kohlmann, C. Dunning, today evaluate pre-Petrine Russia as a state with an original form of government, which was based on tradition, religion, etc.

The purpose of the work: Consider Russia after the Time of Troubles and the need for change.

1. To study the development of Russia after the Time of Troubles.

2. Consider the need for reforms in Russia's development.

For the entire political, economic and social life of Russia, the Time of Troubles (1598-1613) was a huge shock, because. The country suffered enormous material damage. Huge territories in the central counties were empty, as the inhabitants died of hunger or fled.

The political consequences of the Time of Troubles were also significant. The old boyars, undermined by the repressions of Ivan IV, were forced to give up their claims to a special political role in the country. According to A. Presnyakov, the Time of Troubles was a historical line between boyar Russia and noble Russia.

The cultural and psychological consequences of the Time of Troubles were determined by the following factors: on the one hand, the ideology of Moscow exclusiveness was losing its significance, and on the other hand, the need to expand military-technical ties with Europe was shown.

In 1613, in February, a meeting of the Zemsky Sobor was held, where, after long discussions, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Filaret, was elected tsar. Representatives of various classes participated in the activities of the Zemsky Sobor, except for the landlord peasants and serfs.

The choice of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar was due to the following factors:

The Romanovs suited all classes, thanks to which it was possible to achieve reconciliation, and the youthful age of the tsar and his moral character, family ties with the previous dynasty corresponded to the ideas of the people about the intercessor tsar before God.

End of the civil war. By 1615, the Cossack detachments were defeated, which pushed away the bulk of the people with their robberies. Parts of the Cossacks were granted land, and they became part of the military service class.

Termination of intervention. The government managed to resolve foreign policy problems, as a result, in 1617, the Stolbovsky peace was signed with Sweden, according to which the Novgorod lands were returned to Russia, but it lost access to the Baltic Sea.

In 1618, the Deulino truce was concluded. Russia lost the northern and Smolensk lands, at the same time, Russian prisoners returned to Russia along with Filaret, who, after being elevated to the patriarchate, became in fact the co-ruler of his son.

Thus, Russia emerged from the Troubles with huge human and territorial losses - about a third of the country's population died, and was actually exhausted.

Overcoming the economic ruin will be possible only by strengthening serfdom. The international position of the country has sharply worsened. Russia found itself in political isolation, its military potential weakened, and its southern borders remained defenseless for a long time. Anti-Western sentiments intensified in the country and this aggravated the civilizational and cultural isolation of Russia.

The people managed to defend their independence, but as a result of their victory, autocracy and serfdom were revived in Russia. However, most likely, there was no other way to save and preserve Russian civilization in those extreme conditions.

The tasks of the government of Mikhail Romanov were as follows: to establish order in the country, replenish the treasury and end the war with Sweden and Poland.

In 1619 Filaret became patriarch. His program was aimed at "returning to the old days." In 1619, a new description of the lands was carried out, taxes were systematized and increased many times over. In Russia, the construction of monasteries and churches begins, new books are printed. There was a strong moral decline in society. In Russia, the concept of insulting the honor of the tsar and his family appears. The authority of the royal power at that time was extremely low.

In 1628, local self-government was widely developed.

Trading is on a new level. Yaroslavl, Kazan, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod are becoming major shopping centers. They competed with foreign merchants.

The Thirty Years' War is going on in Europe, and Russia is actively supplying its goods abroad (bread, wax, flax, etc.). In 1633 Patriarch Filaret died.

The Moscow government wanted to take revenge for the defeat from the Poles during the Time of Troubles and hoped to return Smolensk in the first place, but Russia was not ready for war for a long time and only in 1632, in June, it was decided at the Zemsky Sobor to send troops under Smolensk.

In 1634, on June 3, the Polyanovsky peace treaty was signed, according to which the Poles recognized Mikhail as the Russian Tsar.

The Smolensk War had a negative impact on the position of the local nobility, which was already difficult. After this war, the internal political crisis of Russia escalated. The war undermined the state budget, taxes increased, dissatisfaction with the authorities among the population grew, but the crisis affected mainly the Russian nobility: there were not enough peasants, and the estates were crushed and smaller, the boyars and large estate owners grew oppressed. The county nobleman could not fully carry out military service. Under these conditions, the government is forming regiments of a new system: reytar, dragoons, spearmen, etc. The number of regiments during the 17th century will increase, and by the end of the century they will predominate numerically.

In the last years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the boyar families, which formed the inner circle of the tsar, decided important state affairs, would gain great influence, but protests from the population still increased.

From 1636 to 1639, councils were held annually, which brought together the population of the provinces. Annual councils were supposed to stabilize the situation and calm the country. In 1637, a number of cities located in the south of Russia were declared closed from the penetration of large patrimonial land ownership. With these measures, the government wanted to protect the land interests of the nobility of the region bordering the steppe.

In 1637, the Turkish fortress of Azov was captured by the Don Cossacks, but the cathedral recommended that the Cossacks leave the fortress, since Russia was weak to attack the Crimea and Turkey.

In the second half of the 1930s, the government began the construction of a large-scale defensive structure on the southern borders with the steppe: the notch line. Thus, it was possible to significantly secure the borders from Tatar raids and move further south.

In 1645, the accession to the Russian throne of Alexei took place in difficult conditions, as the country was in an economic crisis, and the people showed dissatisfaction with the government. A ruling group was formed around the new tsar, headed by the boyar Morozov.

Morozov's government (Pleshcheev, Trakhaniotov, Pure) tried to bring the country out of the economic crisis by reducing the cost of unifying tax collections and salaries. As a result, numerous petty taxes were abolished and one large tax on salt was introduced.

A wave of riots swept across the country from 1648 to 1649 - in Moscow, Pskov, Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Kursk, Voronezh, Yelets, Astrakhan, etc. The riots were caused by dissatisfaction with Morozov's policies and the abuse of local power in the provinces. The people demanded order and justice, the abolition of the salt tax. The rebels also demanded the execution of the ruling group. As a result, Alexei managed to negotiate with the crowd and Morozov was exiled.

In 1648, at the Zemsky Sobor, a decision was made to restore order in the country, to adopt a new code of laws, and at the beginning of 1649, the Council Code was drawn up, which covered various spheres of society. The Council Code fixed many legislative initiatives, such as the abolition of the terms for the investigation of fugitives, legal proceedings, local government, etc. Until 1830, the Cathedral Code functioned as the main law of Russia.

As for Russia's foreign policy, it was not distinguished by consistency, although Russia managed to enter the circle of European diplomacy. At the beginning of the reign of Alexei, a course was taken to stabilize relations with neighbors, primarily with Poland.

In the 1940s, the situation in Polish Ukraine escalated. Dissatisfaction with the Polish authorities grew among local Orthodox residents. Ukraine managed to achieve some privileges. The military population of Ukraine - the Cossacks, raised frequent riots against the Polish authorities. The leader of the Cossacks, Bohdan Khmelnitsky, was elected hetman. Khmelnytsky expressed the desire of Ukrainians to become part of Russia with the rights of autonomy. In Moscow, at the Zemsky Sobor, it was decided to support Ukraine, breaking the peace with Poland. As a result, Russia promised the Cossacks the preservation of local traditions.

In 1654, Russia began hostilities against Poland. Russian troops, with the support of the Cossacks, occupied Smolensk, the territory of Belarus, Chernigov, Left-bank Ukraine, but instead of continuing the war, Alexei decided to take the Polish throne and start a war against Sweden, but the Swedes managed to oust the Russians from the Baltic states. And in 1667, a truce was concluded in the village of Andrusovo for 13 years. Russia received Smolensk and other lands of Poland and the Left-bank Ukraine.

In 1672, Russia and Poland were forced to unite against the Turkish invasion of the Dnieper and Poland, as a result, the advance of the Turks was stopped.

In the first years of the reign of Alexei, a circle of "zealots of piety" was formed, headed by Alexei, whose task was the spiritual renewal of Russia. Gradually, Nikon stands out from the circle. His influence on the young king was enormous. According to Nikon, Russia is too distinctive a country and therefore it is necessary to reform church rites according to the Greek model, expand church construction, and fight the moral vices of society.

Alexei supports Nikon's initiative and decides to carry out church reforms. In 1652, Nikon became patriarch and Alexei instructed him to carry out the reform.

The result of the reform was the church schism of the 17th century, which became a national catastrophe. The reform was not justified either canonically or theologically. The main goal of the reform was a political goal. Alexei expected to stand at the head of the entire Orthodox world, considering himself the successor of the ancient Greek emperors not only in matters of faith and piety, but also the legitimate heir to their kingdom. The tsar was not alien to the idea of ​​becoming the liberator of the Orthodox peoples from the Turkish yoke.

The reform aroused strong resistance from a part of Russian society. Many refused to accept innovations in rites, books, and church services. There was a split in the Russian church and society. As a result, major uprisings took place throughout the country. A conflict was brewing between Alexei and Nikon, and in 1660 Nikon was deprived of the rank of patriarch.

New phenomena in the economy. The recovery process after the Time of Troubles took about three decades. The general line of Russian history was the further strengthening of serfdom and the estate system. In 1649, a new set of laws was adopted - Cathedral Code. He completed the legalization of serfdom by abolishing St. George's Day and establishing an indefinite search for fugitive peasants.

Serfdom held back the development of industry in Russia, which needed free working hands. Later than in the West, there are manufactories - large enterprises based on the division of labor and handicraft technology. In the 17th century, there were only about 30 manufactories in Russia. The first privately owned manufactory is considered to be the Nitsinsky copper smelter in the Urals, built in 1631. Since there were no free workers in the country, the state began to attribute peasants to the factories, whose labor was not productive. The state provided the owners of enterprises with assistance with land, timber, and money.

Another new phenomenon was the commodity specialization of individual regions. In a single state, there was no need to produce all types of products in each region. The districts produced the type of product that was profitable to produce. The centers of metallurgy and metalworking, textiles, salt production, jewelry, etc. received further development.

On this basis, a single all-Russian market is being formed. Fairs acquired great importance: Makarievskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (near Bryansk), Irbitskaya (in the Urals). Along with the development of domestic trade, foreign trade also grew. Until the middle of the century, foreign merchants derived huge benefits from it, exporting timber, furs, hemp, etc. from Russia. The English fleet was built from Russian timber, and the ropes for its ships were made from Russian hemp. The center of Russian trade with Western Europe was Arkhangelsk. Close ties with the countries of the East were established through Astrakhan.

In the 17th century appears protectionism - the economic policy of the state, aimed at protecting the national economy from foreign competition. In 1653, the Trade Charter was adopted, which introduced a single duty (5% of the price of the goods sold, for foreign merchants - 6%). In 1667, the New Trade Charter was adopted, which increased duties on foreign goods. Foreign merchants had the right to conduct wholesale trade only in the border areas.

However, the feudal system continued to play a decisive role in the life of the country.

Territory expansion. In the 17th century, after the Time of Troubles, the territory of Russia increased significantly due to the inclusion of new lands in Siberia, the Southern Urals and the Left-Bank Ukraine, and further development of the Wild Field. In 1654, the Pereyaslav Rada unanimously spoke in favor of Ukraine joining Russia. The advance of the Russians across Siberia was carried out in two ways. The first ran along the northern seas. In 1648, the Cossack Semyon Dezhnev discovered the strait separating Asia from America. The second route ran along the southern borders of Siberia. In 1645, V. Poyarkov went to the Amur and sailed along the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. As a result, he compiled the first detailed description of the Amur region. In the middle of the 17th century, the lands along the Amur were conquered by Yerofey Khabarov.

The annexation of Siberia was of great importance. On the one hand, Russia received a territory rich in fur-bearing animals and minerals, new taxpayers, and on the other hand, the country's extensive development path was consolidated (by increasing the number). At the same time, Western European countries were already moving on to an intensive path of development (by improving quality).

social movements. The response to the intensification of feudal exploitation, the growth of taxation, the enslavement of the peasants were uprisings. Contemporaries called the 17th century the “rebellious age”.

The difficult financial situation of the country forced the government to introduce additional direct and indirect taxes. In 1648, the "Salt Riot" broke out in Moscow, provoked by an additional duty on salt and the arbitrariness of officials. In 1662, the "Copper Riot" took place in Moscow. Instead of silver money, the government issued copper money, with which it paid, but continued to collect taxes in silver. This led to inflation. The uprising was crushed, several hundred people died.

The culmination of popular unrest was the uprising of the Cossacks and peasants in 1670-1671. under the leadership of the Don Cossack Stepan Timofeevich Razin, covering a vast territory. The uprising was crushed, and S.T. Razin was executed.

An example of the development of a religious struggle into a social one was the Solovetsky uprising (1668-1676). The Old Believers refused to accept the corrected liturgical books and closed themselves in the monastery. Old thick walls and food supplies dragged out the siege for several years. Only as a result of betrayal did the tsarist troops penetrate inside, out of 500 defenders of the fortress, 60 remained.

The beginning of the formation of absolutism in the second half of the XVII century. Beginning of the reign Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645) was the heyday of the estate-representative monarchy. Under the young tsar, the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobors played an important role. At the end of his reign, when the main consequences of the Time of Troubles were overcome, the autocracy was strengthened. In the second half of the 17th century, the monarchy evolved towards absolutism , i.e. unlimited power of the ruler. This was especially true for the reign of the second Romanov - Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676).

Since the 30s. In the 17th century, the number of the Boyar Duma increased from 35 to 94 by the end of the 17th century due to the duma nobles and duma clerks. The close Duma, composed of those close to the king, with whom he begins to resolve the most important issues. Accordingly, the influence of the boyars falls. In 1682, the principle of parochialism was finally abolished.

With the limitation of the powers of the Boyar Duma, the importance of orders increased - their number increased and reached 50. The order bureaucracy became the backbone of tsarist power. Not wanting to completely depend on the Boyar Duma and the leadership of orders, Alexei Mikhailovich created a prototype of a personal office - the Order of Secret Affairs (he stood above all others, as he could interfere in the affairs of all state institutions).

The need for Zemsky Sobors disappears. The last time the Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1653 to approve the reunification with Ukraine.

Local self-government, introduced by the reforms of the Elected Rada, is gradually being replaced by more stringent administration through voivods appointed from the center, i.e. from Moscow.

After the church schism caused by the reform of Patriarch Nikon in the middle of the 17th century, the influence and authority of the church were undermined.

The strengthening of the monarchy was reflected in legislation. The Council Code of 1649 considered royal power as the power of the anointed of God and for the first time introduced the concept of "state crime". Such was declared any act directed against the king and his family, or criticism of the government. For a state crime, the death penalty was due.

Church reform of Patriarch Nikon. In 1652, Nikon became patriarch. In 1653, on his initiative, a church reform began, the purpose of which was the unification of church books and rites. The reform is long overdue, since by the middle of the 17th century a lot of errors had accumulated in church books, causing discrepancies.

On the eve of the reform, there was a dispute about what to take as a model for church books and rituals. Nikon believed that Greek church books should be taken as a model. His opponent Avvakum believed that ancient Russian books should be taken.

The king supported Nikon, and the reform was carried out according to Greek models. The choice was explained by the desire to unite the entire Orthodox world under its leadership, and in most Orthodox countries Greek rituals were used. The reform was spurred on by the entry into Russia in 1654 of Ukraine.

The most significant of the innovations adopted by Patriarch Nikon and the church council in 1654 were the replacement of baptism with two fingers with three fingers, the pronunciation of the praise to God "Hallelujah" not twice, but three times, the movement around the lectern in the church not in the direction of the Sun, but against it, bows not to the ground, but to the waist.

Part of the parishioners (Old Believers) did not accept the new changes. Thus a schism arose in the Russian Church, which had a profound influence on the further development of Russia. The ideologist of the Old Believers was Avvakum.

At the same time, Nikon, who was a personal friend of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, began to lay claim to state power. But he overestimated his abilities. The church council of 1666 pronounced a verdict on the deposition of Nikon. Simultaneously anathema, those. the schismatics were cursed. In 1667, the church council decided that the church had no right to interfere in the affairs of the state.

Culture of Russia in the 17th century. The 17th century can be called the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian culture. The main trend of this period was « secularization» - the liberation of culture from church influence.

A new phenomenon was the emergence of portraiture. If earlier it was possible to depict only religious subjects, now they began to draw secular faces. Portraits (“parsuns”) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon, and others are known.

Iconography is also changing. With the outstanding icon painter of the 17th century, Simon Ushakov, the icon loses its religious and mystical character, and the celestials begin to resemble living people. His most famous works are the icons "Savior Not Made by Hands" and "Our Lady of Vladimir".

Stone architecture, interrupted by the Time of Troubles, has been revived since the 1620s. The Kremlin is being reconstructed, hipped churches and cathedrals are being built. The famous complexes of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, the Novodevichy Convent are being designed. At the end of the century, a new style appeared in Russian architecture, called "Naryshkinsky" ,or "Moscow Baroque". Its distinguishing features were multi-tiered, multi-colored decoration of buildings.

In 1634, V. Burtsev's primer and M. Smotrytsky's grammar were published. In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened - the first institution of higher education. At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. a general map of the state appeared.

A satirical genre appears: “Service to a tavern”, “The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”, etc. A new phenomenon for Russian culture was the opening of the first theater in Russia at the court of Alexei Mikhailovich.

Domostroy continued to operate - a Russian literary monument of the 16th century, which was a carefully developed set of rules for social, religious and family behavior.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Show alternative ways of development of the country under Ivan IV.

2. What is a class-representative monarchy?

3. Describe the social structure of the Moscow state.

4. What are the results of Ivan the Terrible's foreign policy?

5. What are the causes of the Time of Troubles.

6. What helped stop the Troubles?

7. What are the reasons and stages of the enslavement of the peasants.

8. Indicate the causes and consequences of the reform of Patriarch Nikon.

additional literature

1. Alekseev, Yu.G. At the helm of the Russian state: An outline of the development of the administrative apparatus of the 14th-15th centuries. / Yu.G. Alekseev. - St. Petersburg. : St. Petersburg State University, 1998. - 348 p.

2. Arakcheev, V.A. Enslavement of peasants in Russia at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries / V.A. Arakcheev // Questions of history. - 2009. - No. 1.

3. Zimin, A.A. Oprichnina / A.A. Zimin. - M. : Territory, 2001. - 448 p.

4. Liseytsev, D.V. Russia after the Troubles - the time of choice / D.V. Liseytsev, N.M. Rogozhin // Domestic History. - 2008. - No. 5.

5. Milov, L.V. Great Russian plowman and features of the Russian historical process / L.V. Milov. - M. : Russian political encyclopedia, 2006. - 568 p.

7. Mikhailova, I.B. Service people of North-Eastern Russia in the XIV-first half of the XVI century. : essays on social history / Mikhailova I.B. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing House of St. Petersburg. state un-ta, 2003. - 639 p.

8. Morozova, L.E. Russia on the way out of the Time of Troubles: The election of Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom / L.E. Morozov. - M. : Nauka, 2005. - 467 p.

9. Petrov, K.V. Mandatory system of administration in Russia at the end of the 15th-17th centuries. : Formation, evolution and legal support of activity / K.V. Petrov. - M.; SPb. : Alliance-Archeo, 2005. - 144 p.

10. Sazanova, N.I. On the correction of liturgical books under Patriarch Nikon / N.I. Sazanova // Questions of History. - 2008. - No. 4.