Traits from the psychology of the Slavs. Psychological foundations of nationalism Vladimir Borisovich Avdeev Preface

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The main official Soviet historian of the 20s, M. N. Pokrovsky, fighting against “Great Russian chauvinism,” continued Sikorsky’s line with an even greater revolutionary scope and declared that 80% of Finnish blood flows in the veins of the “so-called Great Russian people.” Pokrovsky took the secret of how he measured these percentages to his grave.

The leading Soviet anthropologist V.P. Alekseev refuted Sikorsky and Pokrovsky: “The Finnish substrate... cannot be considered the main component in the composition of the Russian people - during the 2nd millennium it almost completely dissolved,” as a result of which “modern Russians are moving closer to... a hypothetical prototype, which was characteristic of the ancestors of the East Slavic peoples before the collision with the Finnish substrate” (“The Origin of the Peoples of Eastern Europe.” M., 1973, pp. 202–203).

However, not everything is clear with this prototype either. Just as it is impossible to say what type the Finns originally had, so “the Proto-Slavs were not distinguished by either the purity of their race or the unity of their physical type” (Collection “Eastern Slavs. Anthropology and Ethnic History.” M., 1999, p. 13). Only in their case do we have a narrower choice, limited to two European types, and scientists strive to identify only one original “Proto-Slavic” type: some believe that it was a Nordic type, others recognize only dark-haired brachycephalics as “true” Slavs (i.e. people with round heads). In our country, the latter point of view was held by F.K. Volkov, who proclaimed in 1916 that the Poles, Russians and Belarusians are Slavs only in language, and Ukrainians and the rest of the southern and western Slavs (except for the Poles) are Slavs not only in language, but also according to the anthropological type (ibid., p. 20).

It is simply dangerous to say this today, when the most extreme nationalism is flourishing in Ukraine - Ukrainians will become completely proud. And then I. A. Sikorsky showered them with compliments: they allegedly “have more preserved the natural Slavic mind and feeling. Thus, the Little Russian turned out to be more ideal, the Great Russian - more active, practical, capable of existence” (“Russian Racial Theory”, p. 276). Are Ukrainians impractical idealists? Yes, you ask any military man, and he will tell you what kind of campaigners they are; ask any former prisoner, and he will tell you what it’s like to work under the protection of a loose Russian convoy and what it’s like to work under the strict supervision of a Ukrainian one who curries favor with his superiors.

For the compiler of the collection under consideration, V.B. Avdeev, the question of the origin of the Slavs is clear as daylight: “The creator and bearer of culture throughout Europe and the European part of Russia has always been the same racial type - a long-legged, blue-eyed blond.” And in general: “always and everywhere in world history, the original racial type, the creator of culture, was a man of the Nordic race. It is this that is therefore the most biologically valuable” (Preface to the collection, pp. 39, 41). These words are in bold.

There is such a dangerous mental illness that I would call “white-haired mania.” The phrases quoted above are a clear syndrome of this disease. V. B. Avdeev does not even think about how many people he offends with such writings.

Among the Germans, this disease became epidemic under Nazism, but its carriers have been spreading this infection since the very beginning of the 20th century. One of them was the defrocked monk Lanz, who gave himself the title “von Liebenfels.” His magazine, Ostara, was called “a magazine for blondes and men.” Lanz has been called "the man who gave Hitler ideas." Hitler actually studied Lanz's journal carefully, although he was by no means blond. Subsequently, in Germany, this psychosis reached such a scale that some young people committed suicide out of despair due to the fact that they did not have the happiness of belonging to the Nordic race (like, indeed, half of the German population). To avoid such cases, they began to come up with various idiotic formulas, like: “A blond soul lives in this dark-haired man.” It only remained to clarify what other parts of the body the soul has. Even such an extreme right-wing figure as G. A. Amodryuz condemns “Nordicism”, the arrogant attitude of blond maniacs towards all other Europeans as strangers, as Semites or blacks, and sees in this a dangerous perversion of the racial idea (“We are the other racists ". Montreal, 1971, p. 122).

Neither race has any reason to look down on another. The classic of German racial theory, Hans F. K. Gunther, emphasized: “There is no generally valid scale of value for peoples and races, that is, race does not have the highest value in itself and cannot call others inferior” (Selected works on race. M., 2002 , p.80). In contrast to this, V. B. Avdeev allows himself to classify the “foreigners of Russia” as “lower” races and extend the principle to the entire world history: “higher” races create - “lower” ones destroy (“Russian racial theory.” Preface, p. 24 ). And the publications in his collection are selected accordingly. In the very first of the articles contained in it, the historian S.V. Eshevsky describes the situation in the USA as follows: “There... there was still the opportunity for a being of a higher breed... a representative of the white race, capable of endless improvement, to use it with complete peace of conscience as a machine, as a worker strength, the Negro, in whom, fortunately (!), there still remains an intermediate link between man himself and the highest breed of ape” (Ibid., p. 65). He is echoed by I. A. Sikorsky: “The black race belongs to the least gifted on the globe” (Ibid., p. 248). And V. A. Moshkov simply does not leave the term “lower races” (pp. 501–508).

Even the generally recognized founder of racial theory, Count A. De Gobineau, considered blacks to be a very gifted race and went so far as to attribute the artistic talents of European peoples to an admixture of black blood. Of course, we also cannot go to this extreme, otherwise we have many who would like to explain, for example, Pushkin’s talent with the blood of his Negro ancestors. I. A. Sikorsky in the article “Anthropological and Psychological Genealogy of Pushkin” clearly defines the sphere of influence of this blood: the unbridled nature of Pushkin, the sudden impetuosity of his decisions and actions, revelry, violent instincts with courtship, feasts, quarrels, duels - all this is “a tribute to the black racial root." This also includes those “hobbies” that the poet calls “lasting delusions.” Adding to this Pushkin’s physical tirelessness and the speed of his perception, Sikorsky writes that this “exhausts the African gifts brought by nature into Pushkin’s soul” (pp. 309–311).

Reading articles about “Russian racial theory” can lead to the false conclusion that Russians are even more racist than Western Europeans. But the history of our people shows a completely opposite picture: in all the territories where they came, the Russians, unlike the Anglo-Saxons, did not destroy the native peoples and did not turn them into slaves. Those who accepted Christianity generally became their own, and the rest could maintain the originality of their usual way of life. A very correct definition was given at one time by A. S. Khomyakov: “We will, as we always have been, democrats among other families of Europe... blessing every tribe for a free life and original development” (Collected works. Vol. 5, p. 106–107).

Annotation

Publication of the fundamental collection “Russian Racial Theory before 1917” is an outstanding event in the publishing and intellectual life of Russia at the beginning of the 21st century.

The collection includes works by the founders of Russian anthropology, psychophysiology and neurology - the works of A. P. Bogdanov, V. A. Moshkov, I. A. Sikorsky, I. I. Mechnikov, S. S. Korsakov and others.

The publication touches on the problems of natural differences between peoples, which also largely determine many socio-political processes in the modern world. The collection has a foreword by the famous Russian racologist Vladimir Borisovich Avdeev.

Few people know that racial theory in Russia was by no means a marginal phenomenon; it was propagated from the departments of the most prestigious educational institutions. Scientific activity in this area was patronized by the royal dynasty and the best part of the state-minded nobility, and was also repeatedly blessed by the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Modern researchers of the monarchy stubbornly pass over in silence this, one of the most interesting and significant aspects of Russian official spiritual life of the pre-revolutionary period. This fundamental publication is intended to fill this gap.

The volume is illustrated with numerous portraits of Russian scientists, photographs and unique engravings.

Some articles in the collection partially preserve the features of the author's spelling and the wording of individual terms.

The project for publishing the above-mentioned book is truly unique in nature, having no analogues in modern scientific and journalistic literature, which in one way or another touches on the problems of natural differences between peoples, which also largely determine many socio-political processes in the modern world.

RUSSIAN RACIAL THEORY BEFORE 1917

Vladimir Borisovich Avdeev

Stepan Vasilievich Eshevsky

Anatoly Petrovich Bogdanov

A. P. Bogdanov

V. V. Vorobiev

I. D. Belyaev

N. I. Kareev

Ivan Alekseevich Sikorsky

I. A. Sikorsky

a) Origin of man

b) Physical characteristics of the main human races (and their divisions)

c) Physiological characteristics of races

d) Psychic abilities of races

I. A. Sikorsky

I. Prehistoric Prescription

II. Past historical times

III. Recent past and modern times

I. A. Sikorsky

III. Conclusion

I. A. Sikorsky

Physical signs of degeneration

Physiological signs of degeneration

Mental signs of degeneration

S. S. Korsakov

K. A. Bari

P. A. Minakov

I. I. Mechnikov

A. F. Rittich

V. A. Moshkov

2. TRACES OF THE GENIUS OF PRIMITIVE MAN

3. APPEARANCE OF THE SHORT-HEADED RACE IN EUROPE

4. HUMANITY IS A HYBRID SPECIES

5. IS IT POSSIBLE FOR A FERTILE CROSS BETWEEN A WHITE MAN AND A PITHECANTHROPUS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE LAWS OF CROSSING?

6. TRACES OF THE WHITE RACE ARE ALL OVER THE WORLD

7. PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION AND CHARACTER OF THE EXTREME LIMITS OF HUMANITY

8. MAN IS A PREDATOR

9. SIMILARITY OF EXTREME TYPES OF HUMANITY WITH ANIMAL HERBIVORES AND PREDATORS

10. OPINIONS OF SCIENTISTS ABOUT THE TWO EXTREME VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN KIND

11. SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN

12. COMPARISON OF SEXUAL DYMORPHISIS IN HUMAN WITH THE SAME IN ANIMALS

13. WOMEN'S ISSUE IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

14. THE GOLDEN AGE OF WOMAN

15. MOTHER RIGHT

16. ARTIFICIAL MONSTERS PRACTICED FOR THE PURPOSE OF DECORATION

17. ORIGIN OF VARIOUS FORMS OF MARRIAGE

18. ESTATES

19. PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE HIGHER AND LOWER CLASSES

20. CHARACTER AND MIND OF THE LOWER CLASSES

21. ORIGIN OF ROYAL POWER

22. OUR THEORY IS CONFIRMED BY FACTS OF ATAVISM

23. HUMAN ATAVISM TOWARDS PYTHECANTHROPUS

24. OUR THEORY IS CONFIRMED BY FACTS OF EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

25. MATURE AND SENILE AGE OF MEN OF THE CAUCASIAN RACE

26. EMBRYOAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUROPEAN WOMAN

27. EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN LOWER RACES

28. CONFIRMATION OF THE THEORY BY FOLK LEGENDS AND CUSTOMS

29. LONGEVITY OF ANCIENT HUMANITY AND THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION

30. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGES

31. WHAT IS THE DEVELOPMENT THAT COMES FROM EXERCISE OF THE ORGANS?

V. A. Moshkov

I. Introduction

II. The difference between “exact” and “inexact” sciences

III. The bastardity of the human race

IV. Degeneration in history

V. The Science of Degeneration

VI. Periodicity in history

VII. Historical cycle

VIII. Acquaintance of the ancients with the historical cycle

IX. The importance of ups and downs in the economy of nature

X. What is the decline

XI. What is the rise?

XII. Anomalies of the historical cycle

HISTORY OF RUSSIA, PRESENTED IN CYCLES

CYCLE ONE

Golden Age, first half

Golden Age, second half

Silver Age second half

Copper Age, first half

Copper Age, second half

Iron Age, first half

Iron Age, second half

SECOND CYCLE 1212–1612

Golden Age, first half

Golden Age, second half

Silver Age, first half

Copper Age, first half

Copper Age, second half

Iron Age, first half

Iron Age, second half

CYCLE THREE

Golden Age, first half

Golden Age, second half

Silver Age, first half

Silver Age, second half

Copper Age first half

Copper Age, second half

The Coming Iron Age

Andrey Nikolaevich Savelyev

Applications

Vladimir Avdeev

White people, multiply!

Anatoly Mikhailovich Ivanov

RUSSIAN RACIAL THEORY BEFORE 1917

in 2 volumes

Collection of original works by Russian classics

edited by V. B. AVDEEV

VOLUME I

Vladimir Borisovich Avdeev

Preface

“Step through us! Forward! Increase your pace!

God bless you on your journey! Hurry! The hour is precious.

Fatherland, dear to us, to happiness, to goodness,

Step through us!

V. G. Benediktov “Towards a new generation”

“Russian racial theory” - the name alone seems to contain a paradox bordering on science fiction. Not only in the mass public consciousness, but even among professional philosophers, historians, biologists and psychologists, the very concept of racial theory is firmly associated with European and American cultures of the 19th and 20th centuries, and is in no way projected onto the history of Russian intellectual life, which is mistakenly identified with ethereal matters and abstract ideals. Generations of “red professors” have done their dirty deed, creating today in the imagination of even very educated people the idea of pre-Bolshevik Russia as a kind of reserve of complacency, daydreaming and laziness. Chekhov's "Seagull" and Blok's "Stranger" in the form of some supersensual mutants are still called upon to soar in an imaginary world under the general name "Russia that we lost."

But logic unmistakably suggests that if the people who managed to create the largest empire in world history were really guided in their actions by intellectual principles and ideals drawn from fashionable salon literature, then they would not be able to subjugate even an inch of land to their will. Faced with dozens of tribes of different races and the most exotic religions, located not only at different stages of socio-political, but also biological evolution, the Russian creators of the empire inevitably had to have a coherent and well-reasoned doctrine, which allowed them to assemble a multi-ethnic conglomerate into a single stable whole, the name to which - the Russian Empire. Pacifying the obstinate, nurturing the zealous, inspiring the uncomplaining, the Russian conqueror, merchant and official were examples of diplomacy, negotiating simultaneously with Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, Muslims and pagan Samoyeds, bringing everywhere the glory and will of the Great Russian Tsar. Cunning or enterprise alone was clearly not enough, as well as good intentions alone, for it was necessary to understand the anthropology and psychology of His Imperial Majesty’s new subjects, to know the strengths and weaknesses of their national characters. Playing, as if on an outlandish musical instrument, on the spiritual strings of the natives, whose existence had never been heard of just yesterday, the Russian “sovereign man” knew how to achieve the necessary harmony in a single symphony of the systematic movement of the white race to the south and east. For such a phenomenon unprecedented in world history, ingenious intuitions alone were not enough; we needed our own racial theory, clearly and conclusively defining the place of Russians as a racial-biological community among the subordinate peoples.

Today you will not find any mentions of racial theory in pre-revolutionary Russia, no serious works, no references to primary sources. A conspiracy of academic silence reigns everywhere. Russian history, and especially the aspect of the strong and positive aspects of the spiritual life of our people today, as in the times of the dominance of the communist professors, is, as it were, “private property”, the right to use which was assigned to a group of engaged individuals.

In the name of the highest interests of the Russian people, in this work we will try to break the veil of silence and show that Russian racial theory is not fiction, but a forgotten gigantic layer of wisdom and experience of our people, captured in the academic works of brilliant Russian scientists.

Racial theory today is commonly understood as a unified philosophical system, located at the intersection of the humanities and natural sciences, through which all social, cultural, economic and political phenomena of human history are explained by the action of hereditary racial differences of the peoples who created this history. The entire abundance of facts accumulated by anthropology, biology, genetics, psychology and related disciplines about the innate racial differences of peoples is projected onto the sphere of their spiritual life. At the basis of each historical phenomenon, racial theory seeks to highlight the biological root cause that caused it, that is, the hereditary differences of representatives of different races. In turn, differences in biological structure lead to differences in behavior, as well as differences in the assessment of phenomena. Thus, racial theory is a science that studies the biological factors of world history.

Racial theory is based on the concept of race, which was introduced into European science in 1984 by the French ethnographer and traveler Francois Bernier. For two centuries there was no clear and unambiguous definition of this term, because scientists mixed purely biological parameters with linguistic and ethnographic ones, which constantly caused confusion, and peoples with the same appearance and mental characteristics were recorded in different races based on data emimalogy or the findings of comparative linguistics. Often peoples who had nothing in common with each other in terms of physical structure were classified as one race only on the basis of linguistic community. These contradictions and inaccuracies in systematization cost the adherents of racial theory dearly, because they compromised the entire science as a whole. As a result of identifying the concepts of “people” and “race”, completely absurd concepts arose, such as “Teutonic race”, “Germanic race”, “Slavic race”.

Joseph Egorovich Deniker

The first to correct the situation was the Russian racologist of French origin, born in Astrakhan, Joseph Egorovich Deniker (1852–1918), when in 1900 he published the book “Human Races” in French and Russian. In it he wrote: “As for the classification of races, only physical characteristics are taken into account. Through anthropological analysis of each ethnic group, we will try to determine the races that make up it. Then, comparing races with each other, we will unite the races that have the greatest number of similar characteristics, and separate them from the races that show the greatest differences with them.”

By race, Deniker clearly understood a “somatological unit”, thus ending any ambiguity in anthropology. The entire book is essentially devoted to the separation of the concepts of ethnography and anthropology, which the author defines as disciplines of different origins: the first - sociological, and the second - biological. He wrote: “Several years ago I proposed a classification of human races based solely on physical characteristics (skin color, quality of hair, height, shape of head, nose, etc.).”

In fact, Deniker was the first to take the position of rigid and consistent biological determinism in racial philosophy. In his opinion, the environment is powerless in the face of racial characteristics. He argued: “Racial characteristics are preserved with remarkable tenacity, despite the mixing of races and the changes caused by civilization, the loss of the old language, etc. Only its relationship in which this or that race is included in a given ethnic group changes.”

Since then, all racial classifications have been built on the principle of classification based on the principle of classification by I. E. Deniker. In addition, he made other significant contributions to the development of science. The pioneers of natural science of that era were less politically engaged than today, and they were not afraid to express their opinions about the cultural value of this or that individual, people, or race. Historians, linguists and archaeologists...

I. A. Sikorsky

In the eighties of the last century, about twenty-five years ago, one paramilitary man of very significant rank, having inspected some part of the army of his country and admiring the strength of this army, said the following words about himself and about those whom he looked at: “We (name rivers) we fear no one except God.” By the word no one, he meant neighboring peoples. Another person of equally significant rank, participating in the celebration of the centenary of the Main Artillery Directorate, saw the brilliant state of the artillery unit and said: “How good and strong all this is. Just God grant that I never have to use all this in business.” Of these two contemporaries, the first showed physical strength to his neighbors; the second showed moral strength.

Moral strength, spiritual power, psychic energy represent the most important element in the national and international life of mankind. The significance of this element began to be assessed practically and scientifically only recently, and this significance turns out to be extremely great, and the element itself promises to be infinitely fruitful in its development. That determined person who enters the cage of a lion or tiger, showing him his spiritual strength, this person wins in one minute a quick and sure victory, which he would not have won at all if he had entered the cage of a wild animal with a revolver, a hand cannon or a bomb. . Not only man shows his spiritual strength when necessary, but more developed and intelligent animals do the same: they also try to replace physical strength with spiritual power. The English Archbishop Guibert, who traveled from India to Europe on a ship that also carried an elephant for a large London menagerie, became acquainted with this animal and appreciated its spiritual qualities. When the elephant was unloaded, he never wanted to walk along the gangplank to the shore, and he was stabbed in sensitive parts of his body with sharp iron sticks, as is usually done, and he was forced to obey. But halfway there the gangplank broke off and the elephant fell into the water. This intelligent animal, whose many parts of the brain are as well developed as those of humans, immediately realized that the gangplank could not support its heavy body. A few days later, the Most Reverend Guibert visited the circus to see his travel friend. The elephant joyfully greeted the archbishop and, touching his wounded ears with the end of his trunk, showed the archbishop the blood. The Eminence Guibert says: the elephant’s language was so clear that it could be translated into human speech with the following words: “Look how cruelly they treated me in your absence!” The archbishop gave the elephant two apples, which the elephant carefully took and ate. Seeing this, the circus owner ordered a basket filled with apples to be placed in the elephant's cage - the elephant flew into a rage and instantly trampled the basket and apples into mush. The elephant showed his spiritual power! By his action he seemed to say: “Gentlemen, people! I am a beast of great physical strength, but I have also developed in myself the highest spiritual qualities: meekness, patience, generosity; So treat me like a human being and don’t awaken the beast in me.” The elephant had the right to express such a thought, because he is the first animal in the world that has developed meekness, generosity and parental love, moreover, on such a wide scale that is inaccessible to any other animal, but is characteristic only of man.

Nationalists in all countries are people who want to show the spiritual qualities and spiritual power of their people. The nationalists have no physical strength, they have neither guns nor bombs; if they are strong, then only by spiritual power. They are looking for this power, trying to develop it, putting its parts together, and trying to show this whole spiritual image to others.

The people's spirit and people's power are reflected in many ways. At the Paris World Exhibition in 1889, the Russian painting department attracted warm, sympathetic attention from the international public, who visited this department more closely than others. Foreigners were amazed that the poor and gray Russian nature could evoke such serious themes among artists. The themes, almost entirely, were of a psychological nature, depicting the depths of the human soul; in this way they attracted the attention and heart of the observer. Russian artists said a new word for the spiritual progress of humanity! But our writers did the same: Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Lermontov, Leo Tolstoy, and that is why they all became a moral necessity for humanity and became the rulers of world thoughts. It was not for nothing that the French, when escorting Turgenev’s coffin to Russia, said that he had two fatherlands: Russia and France. For them he was the same great writer and the same spiritual treasure as for us. One small work by Tolstoy, “The Master and the Worker,” made an extraordinary impression throughout Europe, especially in England. The English, strong in spirit and will, more than other peoples, appreciated the importance of the spiritual power of the “Worker”, who was preparing to face death with the calmness and childish simplicity of a pure soul with which, according to Mikhail Ivanovich Dragomirov, the Russian soldier lives and dies . Russian artists and Russian writers have made a major contribution to the treasury of the universal human soul and thereby rendered a great service to international mental progress, which consists of the sum of national progress, according to the successful thought of Nikolai Alexandrovich Dobrolyubov. The Russians, having lagged behind the West in the development of objects of external culture, did not lag behind in the development of issues of the spirit, to which, not without reason, the venerable elder of our time Leo Tolstoy attaches such importance. Poetry, art, art, science - all these are the fruits of the highest spiritual virtues; all these are questions of the spirit that are equally dear to all humanity, no matter what nation develops them.

In developing questions of the spirit, human races are not equally talented in all areas, but they differ quite significantly: for example, the Englishman is characterized by physical strength and inimitable willpower and self-control, almost inaccessible to other peoples; The French are characterized by a subtle mind and refined feeling, which is hardly completely accessible to other peoples.

The special qualities inherent in the soul of each people have recently become the subject of scientific research, which was initiated by the German psychologist Lazzarus, who for the first time began publishing a special journal devoted to the study of the psychology of peoples. All nations, not excluding our fatherland, have begun the scientific study of the people's soul. The importance of such a study is so great that all its dimensions can hardly be fully appreciated at the present moment. The national spirit is the greatest biological wealth, created by centuries of biological and historical life, the deep springs of which are hidden from modern eyes. The elephant, which is now shamelessly exterminated (and will soon be completely exterminated!) for the extraction of ivory, has caused justifiable lamentation among French psychologists. Nature, they reasoned, took one and a half million years to create the elephant with its white bone and its high spiritual qualities, and man barbarously destroys this biological value, not understanding its significance. Something similar happens in assessing the individual characteristics of peoples. These features find true acceptance and timely appreciation only on their native soil, where these features originated and grew. But they would be little understandable to foreign people. On the international market, if assessed in droves, these highest psychological innovations would run the risk of not being noticed and the danger of not being correctly assessed. The willpower of the English would probably be regarded outside of England (as we see now) as rudeness and unceremoniousness; the subtlety of the mind and feeling of the French would go, in a foreign market, for sentimentality, etc. But on native soil, all mental characteristics are noticed early and carefully cultivated. These native traits are dear to every nation, as the greatest biological and spiritual heritage, which determines the destinies of the people and which, in times of national disasters, appears in all its prominence and is often a saving grace for the people. In this fact lies the deep reason for the existence and prosperity of national parties in all peoples where political life and political struggle arose. National parties are the main headquarters of national psychism and the first appraisers and assessors of the spiritual wealth of their people.

The spiritual wealth of every nation was accumulated long before the emergence of a national party. These riches include: language, poetry, literature, art, religion, morals and customs. All these manifestations of the people's soul have their own characteristics for each people and are dear to each people, like life itself. National parties must take upon themselves the main protection of these national wealth and the main concern for their development and direction.

The psychological instrument by which national life is directed is the feelings of sympathy and antipathy. The meaning of the first feeling is well known to everyone; the feeling of antipathy, in very recent times, was the subject of study by the well-known French philosopher Ribot. This thinker defines the psychological and, so to speak, international significance of the feeling of antipathy. This feeling has a much greater specific weight and has a greater psychological currency than previously thought. Everyone knew the feeling of sympathy, and everyone equally recognized antipathy as having only a negative meaning and the psychological opposite of sympathy. Ribot proves the psychological independence of antipathy and the positive meaning of this feeling. Antipathy, according to Ribot, is the other side of the sense of self-preservation; it helps people feel stronger and hold on to their spiritual characteristics, which can often be great psychological values that are inaccessible to others, often incomprehensible to others and therefore extremely valuable to the owner. The lucky owner can grow them into national, and, subsequently, universal value. The high appreciation given by all cultural humanity to Turgenev and Leo Tolstoy for the fact that they created valuable artistic sketches of the Russian soul shows how important national types of peoples are for the international soul. Turgenev alone, whose stories from Russian life were eagerly listened to by the elected intelligentsia of Paris every two weeks, gained more sympathy for our fatherland than a whole series of diplomats and scientists could do. This writer lived and died in Bougival near Paris twenty-five years ago, and to this day he continues to live in the most tender memory of all peoples. And another writer, still alive and living in Yasnaya Polyana, also lives in the hearts of all humanity. Through these writers, the Russian soul entered the international soul and became its property. It is not the words of ministers and their interviewers, but the artistic touches of writers that raise the psychic currency of peoples. This is the meaning of spiritual power!

It is easy to understand, dear sirs, why those who are hostile to the Russian people attack mainly and most of all their poets, writers, scientists, their great people, and so on. Such attackers and detractors are animated not by a feeling of antipathy (it is permissible and legal!), but by a feeling of anger, contempt and other base passions. Let us give a few such examples, since they, more than anything else, should be the subject of nationalists. These typical angry attacks are avant-garde expressions and reveal the thoughts and goals of those for whom the existence of the benevolent and peaceful elephant of Eastern Europe is something like a sharp knife in the heart. Here is one of such speeches. This is a poem published in one of the newspapers and entitled: “To the tune of Lermontov.”

We present this poem in its entirety:

Tell me, gang of the black hundred,

Where were you born, where did you bloom?

What backyards, gateways

Were you the first to be proud?

Tell me, by whose evil will

Have you even crawled into the Duma?

Was Greenmouth to blame?

Or is Krushevan the root of evil?

Or the enemy's army is the best warrior

Honest Father Iliodor

Found that the spirit is worthy of malice

Represented in the Duma by you?

The whistling of whips, the hissing of the reptile,

From around the corner, a dashing swoop, -

Everything is full of filth and stench

In you and under you.

Everyone knows, of course, Lermontov’s wonderful poem “The Branch of Palestine”:

Tell me, Palestine Branch,

Where did you grow up, where did you bloom?

What hills, what valley

Were you a decoration?

Everyone also knows that this artistic pearl poured out of the soul of the mournful poet at the moment when he was facing a second administrative exile to the Caucasus. The poet soon overcame the personal grief caused by the prospect of this exile, but the thought of the suffering of those close to him, who were facing separation from him, was difficult for him. And so, overwhelmed by high altruistic grief, the poet personifies himself in the “Branch”, and his loved ones in the “Palm Tree”, from which the branch is forcibly torn away: a picture of the possible death of friends or loved ones rises before his artistic gaze. This plunges the poet into the deepest sadness, and he, in grave languor of his soul, asks questions and carries on a conversation with the branch:

And is Palma still alive today?

Or in a sad separation

She faded just like you

And the dust falls greedily

On yellowed sheets?

Such were the poet’s thoughts and worries! For us, Russians, every minute of the poet’s sorrowful life, which resulted in the sounds of his poetry, has become sacred. Lermontov's friend and translator, the German poet Bodenstedt, calls all the poetry of our great poet “precious tears,” which, as Bodenstedt puts it, served as consolation for Lermontov during his life and created an unfading wreath of glory after death. And so, the newspaper crook dared to blasphemously dip his unclean pen into these precious tears in order to settle scores with his political opponents. When a bad person (what kind of person can be imagined!) wants to offend and insult his opponent, he insults and dishonors his mother for this. The rhymer in question did this with the sacred memory of the great Russian man. All the best works of Lermontov, for example, "Borodino", and the works of many other poets have become a target for people who are filled with anger and contempt towards the Russian people and attack everything sacred to us. Think about it: they are attacking not our shortcomings, but our sacred things.

Gentlemen, Russian nationalists! From the moment you were born as a political party, evil speeches such as those given now stopped, as if by magic. Such is the spiritual power of the national banner!

Russian nationalists and representatives of nationalism in other countries have another opponent. This enemy is those countless people who hourly, from the depths of their offices, send prayers to the Almighty so that He does not reduce their profits on international loans. These pious people, who do not believe in the power of national ideas, believe in the power of gold. In the last 4-5 years, they have made every effort to use the power of gold to simultaneously: reduce our spiritual power and increase interest on their capital.

Both opponents, assessing the phenomena of life in their own way, do not realize the great significance of spiritual power. Ignoring the truth of life, or not understanding it, they do not understand the fact that nations and kingdoms are held together not by physical or monetary strength, but by the greatness and power of the people’s spirit. Above the brute force of weapons and above the insidious power of money there is great psychic strength and great biological truth - they determine the future of the most important world events. A people or race which is sufficiently perceptive in these spiritual subtleties can secure for itself further faithful existence and success.

In addressing this side of the topic, we do not raise ingenious questions about the right of force or the force of law - let experts in force and law resolve the meaning of these metaphysical subtleties; we are more willing to dwell on real questions - on questions of psychic strength and biological truth. These questions are closer to each other than it might seem at first; but for a more correct perspective, I will ask your permission to look at modern events a little back, - otherwise, due to the proximity to the trees, you may not notice the forest. Lack of range of vision or breadth of vision are advantages due to which everything subsequently has to be corrected or redone. So, let us not be afraid of either broad or distant prospects.

I would like that on this path Russian nationalists are not like the Finnish ones, who in their historical memories do not want to rise further than the Borgos Diet. But everyone knows that history existed before this Sejm! This history, and in particular, that part of it that is called anthropological history, would be very, very useful for both our and Finnish nationalists, and educated people in general.

History is a great thing! Whoever does not know history - whether it be an individual person or a separate nation - will have, in his historical progress, to go back several times, like that traveler who does not know the route and does not want to ask people.

Mental and biological events, as mentioned above, are close. Their connection lies in the fact that historical events are preceded and then biological events go alongside them. These last ones create a significant part of history. It is necessary to know this in order to fully appreciate the power of those great factors that form the foundation of the history of peoples.

Biological studies, as well as historical ones, show that the talent of races and their anthropological qualities stand in the closest connection and interrelation. Virchow, known throughout the world, examining the skulls and psychic virtues of some races, gave a very good review of the Slavs, but about one small people of Europe he expressed that they have the worst skull that can be found in Europe. This caused a storm of indignation and protests. True, these protests were not as harsh as the protests and reviews of Moscow pharmacists about Mendeleev, who in relation to them became in the same position as Virkhov in relation to the people (name of rivers). Pharmacists, in response to this, said that Mendeleev was once a somewhat learned man, but now he is completely behind the times. Soon both of these anthropological and psychological storms subsided, and everything remained the same, that is, Mendeleev, despite the deprivation of his diploma by Moscow pharmacists, still remained a great scientist, and the skulls of the representatives of this people, about whom Virchov spoke, remained unchanged only in Virchow’s collection, but also in his living copies. Thus, the skulls of peoples and other features of the physical structure of races are as different as the spiritual qualities, and correspond to one another. Body and spirit mutually define themselves and mutually characterize themselves.

In assessing the destinies and future of peoples, it is necessary to take into account all the historical and biological precedents they have experienced. Modern peoples, strong in spirit and in numbers, are not a mere accident or a groundless whim of fate, but are the natural, organic conclusion of an immense chain of previous events. Having stood out from a number of others by their biological characteristics in immemorial prehistoric times, talented peoples then introduced colossal, incalculable expenditures of psychic energy into their nature and life and thereby constituted high-grade spiritual capital. They passed this capital on to their descendants as an invaluable biological heritage on which their descendants base their modern historical greatness. The ancestors of modern great peoples cultivated their spirit and their body, developed physical and mental virtues, and tirelessly continued their spiritual work in a friendly close formation of all their units for thousands of years. This is what created the spiritual greatness and large numerical contingent of some peoples! It is possible for an outside individual or people to become a participant in this great spiritual capital only through anthropological unification, since nature does not know and does not practice either imitation, or deeds of gift, or alienation of spiritual qualities.

The biological and psychological exist together and are not subject to separation or stratification; everything is given at once to the son of his people. Therefore, the question of the separate original existence of small races and peoples or their integration into great nations is a question of their instinct and reason. The present domination of great nations is not a product of history and historical events, but a profoundly prehistoric and biological phenomenon, serving as an expression of the evolution and progress of life. This is a great hereditary honor of nature, bestowed upon those who have worked hard to cultivate the spirit and body! This is a personal acquisition, not a conquest! If any people, small or great, wanted to deviate from their historical, and even more so from their biological principles and requirements, then they could easily find themselves in the position that is artistically depicted by Turgenev in his “Prose Poems”, in story "Nature". This story was apparently written for government officials. This is the story.

“Look at the skulls!” - with such an exclamation the cemetery watchman chased after the hero of J. Jerome’s story “Three in a Boat”, obviously believing that contemplating skulls is a very interesting activity that delivers aesthetic pleasure. It seems that the book “Russian Racial Theory before 1917”, published in 2002 by the FERI-V publishing house, was designed by this particular cemetery watchman. Such an abundance of images of skulls would be appropriate on the pages of an anthropology or anatomy textbook as illustrations of the material, but in this case they are scattered everywhere simply as an ornament, regardless of the text. This already resembles the decoration of a palisade around a settlement of cannibals. In addition to this, skeletons and people with flayed skin walk around the pages of the book - it’s simply scary to open it!

It must be said right away that the title of the book is misleading. There was no special Russian racial theory, unlike, say, the German one, as an integral doctrine. Yes, Russian science in this area did not lag behind the world level at all, and we also seriously studied racial differences. Moreover, the huge Russian Empire with the many peoples living in it provided extensive material for this, but very different theories were created, and their value, accordingly, was also different.

The 19th century is now the year before last for us, but the book contains evidence of how topical thoughts expressed back then can sound today. For example, the famous Russian historian J.D. Belyaev, recalling the hysteria caused in Europe by the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863 (no less than the current counter-terrorist operation in Chechnya), was indignant that “until recently, most Western European magazines and newspapers, at the command of Polish emigrants, unanimously asserted that we, the Great Russians, are none other than the Tatars, Scythians, Finns, Unns, Turans and almost Turks, even worse than the Turks, some kind of monsters desecrating European soil...

And even today among Western Europeans there are still many who want to believe such rumors and tales” (Russian racial theory - p. 195).

I.D. Belyaev spoke about his present time, we can say the same about ours. The frenzy of Gorbachev's perestroika was marked by the fact that the Balts and even the Ukrainians began to prove, foaming at the mouth, that they were flesh and blood of “European civilization,” unlike the Russians. I remember that at that time the “People's Deputy of the USSR” especially distinguished himself from Estonia (which was already adapting to jump from the USSR to NATO) T. Made with his reasoning that “Russians lived for centuries under the Mongol or Tatar yoke, and therefore Russians are still in an ethnic in terms of a mixed nation... The Tatars and Mongols at one time invaded Russian villages, exterminated and captured the male population, and raped Russian women. That’s why today the Russian people are so mixed with those people who once raped Russian women.”

This statement did not shine with either novelty or originality. There has long been a saying in Europe: “Scratch a Russian and you will find a Tatar.” It was repeated so often that some began to accept this lie as truth. There is no need to make any special claims against the enemies of Russia, the enemy is the enemy, but the idol of Russian patriots V.V. Kozhinov objectively played along with the Russophobes, who also ranted a lot, without mastering the topic, about the special “mixedness” of the Russian people.

In the speech of I.D. Belyaev there was more pathos than evidence. But this gap is successfully filled in other articles published in the collection in question. Thus, anthropologist V.V. Vorobyov, although he scolded Belyaev - it is impossible, they say, to so categorically deny the influence of Mongolian blood, some part of it could not help but be mixed in, but it “should not have had a particularly strong influence” (p. 165 ). “The influence of Mongol and Tatar blood on the general type of Great Russians did not have a very noticeable effect; at least, based on the currently existing data, it cannot be clearly noted” (p. 183). Another anthropologist, I.A. Sikorsky, also noted: “Tatar and Mongol admixture appear in the form of insignificant inclusions in places and due to their, so to speak, randomness and insignificance, do not in the least violate the purity and obviousness of the main basic ... composition, and therefore such random impurities should be ignored and not taken into account” (p. 271). But trouble happened to Sikorsky: having pulled his leg out of one hole, he fell into another. Russians, in his opinion, are still a mixture, just not with the Tatar-Mongols, but with the Finno-Ugric people. He literally says: “The population of Russia includes partly individuals of a purely Finnish type, partly of a purely Slavic type, and partly of a mixed type - from both.” The Russian tribe “contains almost everywhere on its vast territory up to 40% of its composition in the form of anthropologically pure specimens of primitive composite races (Finnish-Slavs) and about 60% of an already merged, mixed (mixed) contingent” (p. 271-272).

And where did Sikorsky manage to discover the “purely Finnish type”? There is no such thing in nature; Finno-Ugric languages are spoken by peoples of various races, from Nordic (Baltic Finns) to Mongoloid (Nenets). Among one Mordovian speaking two different languages, five anthropological types are represented, arising on the basis of three racial components.

I.A. Sikorsky even agreed that “the weakest side of the Slavic character is the will... and in this respect the Slavs represent the opposite... to the Finns” (p. 275). Again: which Finns exactly? A.I. Herzen tells in “Past and Thoughts” how, during his exile in Vyatka, he once observed a fire in a village inhabited by Russians and Udmurts. The Russians were fussing, carrying water, extinguishing the fire, and the Udmurts were sitting on a hillock, crying and praying. And in modern Russia, the Udmurts occupy first place among all its peoples in terms of the number of suicides per capita. So, maybe this Finnish people is superior to us in terms of willpower, maybe even in crossing with them Sikorsky would have imagined the “great task of improving the whole people”, which is carried out in the “crossing of races”? (p.277)

Unfortunately, the collection did not include V. M. Florinsky’s work “Improvement and Degeneration of the Human Race,” published in 1864 - a year before F. Galton began promoting eugenics. Florinsky exaggerated the influence of the Mongols on the external type and character of the Russian people, but perhaps specifically in order to emphasize: not every mixture is good; there are also “unfavorable crosses.”

The main official Soviet historian of the 20s, M.N. Pokrovsky, fighting against “Great Russian chauvinism,” continued Sikorsky’s line with an even greater revolutionary scope and declared that 80% of Finnish blood flows in the veins of the “so-called Great Russian people.” Pokrovsky took the secret of how he measured these percentages to his grave.

The leading Soviet anthropologist V.P. Alekseev refuted Sikorsky and Pokrovsky: “The Finnish substrate... cannot be considered the main component in the composition of the Russian nationality - during the 2nd millennium it almost completely dissolved,” as a result of which “modern Russians are moving closer to... a hypothetical prototype that was characteristic of the ancestors of the East Slavic peoples before the collision with the Finnish substrate” (“The Origin of the Peoples of Eastern Europe.” M., 1973. pp. 202-203).

However, not everything is clear with this prototype either. Just as it is impossible to say what type the Finns originally had, so “the Proto-Slavs were not distinguished by either the purity of their race or the unity of their physical type” (Collection “Eastern Slavs. Anthropology and Ethnic History.” M., 1999, p. 13). Only in their case do we have a narrower choice, limited to two European types, and scientists strive to identify only one original “Proto-Slavic” type: some believe that it was a Nordic type, others recognize only dark-haired brachycephalics as “true” Slavs (i.e. people with round heads). In our country, F.K. adhered to the latter point of view. Volkov, who proclaimed in 1916 that Poles, Russians and Belarusians are Slavs only by language, and Ukrainians and the rest of the southern and western Slavs (except Poles) are Slavs not only by language, but also by anthropological type (ibid., p. .20).

It is simply dangerous to say this today, when the most extreme nationalism is flourishing in Ukraine - Ukrainians will become completely proud. And then I.A. Sikorsky showered them with compliments: they supposedly “have more preserved the natural Slavic mind and feeling. Thus, the Little Russian turned out to be more ideal, the Great Russian - more active, practical, capable of existence” (“Russian Racial Theory”, p. 276). Are Ukrainians impractical idealists? Yes, you ask any military man, and he will tell you what kind of campaigners they are; ask any former prisoner, and he will tell you what it’s like to work under the protection of a loose Russian convoy and what it’s like to work under the strict supervision of a Ukrainian one who curries favor with his superiors.

There is such a dangerous mental illness that I would call “white-haired mania.” The phrases quoted above are a clear syndrome of this disease. V.B. Avdeev doesn’t even think about how many people he insults with such writings.

Neither race has any reason to look down on another. The classic of German racial theory, Hans F.K. Günther, emphasized: “There is no generally valid scale of the value of peoples and races, i.e. race does not have the highest value in itself and cannot call others inferior” (Selected works on racology. M., 2002, p. 80). In contrast to this, V.B. Avdeev allows himself to attribute the “foreigners of Russia” to the “lower” races and extend the principle to the entire world history: “higher” races create - “lower” ones destroy (“Russian racial theory.” Preface, p. 24 ). And the publications in his collection are selected accordingly. In the very first of the articles contained in it, the historian S.V. Eshevsky describes the situation in the USA as follows: “There... there was still the opportunity for a being of a higher breed... a representative of the white race, capable of endless improvement, to use with complete peace of conscience how a machine, as labor power, a Negro, in whom, fortunately (!), there still remains an intermediate link between man himself and the highest breed of ape” (Ibid., p. 65). He is echoed by I.A. Sikorsky: “The black race belongs to the least gifted on the globe” (Ibid., p. 248). And V.A. Moshkov simply does not leave the term “lower races” (pp. 501-508).

Even the generally recognized founder of racial theory, Count A. De Gobineau, considered blacks to be a very gifted race and went so far as to attribute the artistic talents of European peoples to an admixture of black blood. Of course, we also cannot go to this extreme, otherwise we have many who would like to explain, for example, Pushkin’s talent with the blood of his Negro ancestors. I.A. Sikorsky in the article “Anthropological and Psychological Genealogy of Pushkin” clearly defines the sphere of influence of this blood: the unbridled nature of Pushkin, the sudden impetuosity of his decisions and actions, revelry, violent instincts with courtship, feasts, quarrels, duels - all this is “a tribute to the black racial root." This also includes those “hobbies” that the poet calls “lasting delusions.” Adding to this Pushkin’s physical tirelessness and the speed of his perception, Sikorsky writes that this “exhausts the African gifts brought by nature into Pushkin’s soul” (pp. 309-311).

Reading articles about “Russian racial theory” can lead to the false conclusion that Russians are even more racist than Western Europeans. But the history of our people shows a completely opposite picture: in all the territories where they came, the Russians, unlike the Anglo-Saxons, did not destroy the native peoples and did not turn them into slaves. Those who accepted Christianity generally became their own, and the rest could maintain the originality of their usual way of life. A very correct definition was given at one time by A.S. Khomyakov: “We will, as we always have been, democrats among other families of Europe... blessing every tribe for a free life and original development” (Collected works. Vol. 5, pp.106-107).

And now the “white haired people” come and begin to retrain us. They are busy searching for long skulls and blond hair in all parts of the globe for the greater glory of the “Nordic race”; they do not understand or do not want to understand that their “finds and discoveries” have nothing to do with the said race. The outstanding Soviet anthropologist V.V. Bunak proved that the emergence of modern races was preceded by a stage of diversity of racial forms, and the ancient forms were different from modern ones. One of the pillars of German racology, Eugen Fischer, explained in detail how many races developed the same characteristics, only in some they prevailed, while in others they did not. So the fair-haired and blue-eyed Libyans with whom the ancient Egyptians fought were not “Aryans” at all. According to L.N. Gumilyov, the Mongols, unlike the Tatars, were a tall, bearded, fair-haired and blue-eyed people. They had nothing in common with the blondes who inhabited Europe (Search for a fictional kingdom. M., 1970, p. 99).

On the other hand, it is curious how the “white-haired people” will explain the fact that the founder of Russian scientific anthropology A.P. Bogdanov encountered while looking through Sakharov’s collection of Russian folk songs. He discovered that while Latvians sing of “golden-haired maidens,” in Russian songs the good fellow always has black curls (Russian Racial Theory, p. 139). V.V. Vorobyov adds purely anthropological data to this: “The study of the majority of modern Slavic tribes, including the Great Russians, shows that light hair and eye color is far from predominant... Somewhat more than half of all Great Russians are dark-haired. There are very few pure blondes and pure brunettes, no more than 8-0% in complexity, the remaining 90% fall to the share of light brown hair of various shades” (Ibid., p. 179).

As for the “finds” with which the “white-haired maniacs” like to amaze, the physician P.A. Minakov notes in this regard that by the appearance of the “mound” hair one cannot draw conclusions about its original color: black hair is from lying in the ground for a long time may lighten. Therefore, studying hair from the burial mounds of central Russia, Minakov came to the conclusion that the Kurgan population was dark-haired. This contradicts the widespread opinion that our Slavic ancestors were fair-haired, and confirms, on the contrary, Vorobyov’s opinion that the Proto-Slav, in all likelihood, had dark hair (Ibid., p. 377).

“Blonde-haired people” get confused not only about their hair. V.B. Avdeev showed extreme illegibility when compiling his collection. Along with serious scientific articles, it included the completely crazy “theories” of V.A. Moshkov. This general from the artillery seems to have been the victim of a strong recoil during firing, and this affected his mental faculties. What is his statement worth, that “except for the white long-headed man in the Neolithic age, no other human races existed on the entire globe, but only African and Asian Pithecanthropus, therefore, the short-headed aliens who appeared in Europe in the Neolithic age were no one else , like Pithecanthropus” (Ibid., p. 480). This is in the Neolithic! In the fifth millennium BC! It is absolutely clear that the case with General Moshkov is purely clinical. But Moshkov’s entire “theory” about “higher” and “lower” races is based on these mythical Pithecanthropes.

This kind of “collections” is usually called a “hodgepodge”. The book would greatly benefit from cutting off the tail, more than two hundred pages, and ending it somewhere on page 430 with an article by I.I. Mechnikov “The Struggle for Existence,” who, by the way, is considered a great Jewish scientist (see. collection “Jews in Russian Culture.” M., 1996, p. 166), since this is a very important article in our times.

I. A. Sikorsky

Data from anthropology

Anthropology can provide psychology with a number of very significant information, through which the answers to some of its basic questions can be brought to a degree of accuracy and certainty; At the same time, anthropology can, like biology, help clarify some purely scientific, theoretical problems that bring psychology closer to natural science and, more importantly, the science of the physical properties of man with the science of the soul. In the first place, anthropology can provide special services with its anthropometry and data regarding human races, their origins and properties.

The data of the latter kind contain important practical instructions explaining phylogeny and heredity.

a) Origin of man

The origin of man was the result of an extremely complex and long series of evolutionary events. The idea of the sudden emergence of man has now been completely abandoned by science, and this question can be considered resolved in a different direction. Man appeared on earth with the same slowness and gradualness with which other even less complex events occurred. Not so long ago, geology was dominated by the doctrine of cataclysms, that is, sudden major upheavals on Earth, the consequence of which was supposedly a change in the topography of the earth's crust; but geology is now convinced that change occurs slowly over thousands of years. Biology has now become convinced of a similar slow, gradual course of change in the field of the living world. Of the enormous number of years of the Earth's existence, organic phenomena account for an insignificant period, and the entire boundless evolution of life is still ahead! Geologists divide the entire history of the Earth's existence into four periods: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, or diluvial; life phenomena arose in the tertiary period.

Man undoubtedly already existed in the diluvial age during the interglacial period, that is, about 500,000 years ago. The last 10,000 years constitute historical time, and the entire previous period refers to prehistoric time, and the person who lived at that time is given the name prehistoric man. To judge the physical and mental properties of this distant person, there are remains of skeletons and numerous tools - the fruit of his mind and creativity. But science already has data indicating that man existed in an earlier era in the Tertiary Age. Thus, the age of man turns out to be extraordinary. The very tools of man are distinguished by very different advantages. The tools that belonged to the most ancient man are fragments of hard rocks (stones), devoid of finishing and polishing, which is why this period of human existence is called the Stone Age, and precisely the age of unpolished stone, or the Paleolithic (ancient stone) age, followed by a century more complete development of human intelligence and plasticity, which was expressed in the manufacture of beautiful polished tools from stones (knives, saws, axes, chisels, hammers and carved jewelry). This period was called the Age of Polished Stone, or the Neolithic (New Stone) Age. Then came the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and, finally, the historical time of human existence began. During this vast period, embracing hundreds of thousands of years, not only the spiritual qualities of man have changed, but also his very physical organization. The remains of fossil humans from the Tertiary period, found by E. Dubois on the island. Java (we will call him a tertiary man for brevity) are such that in science there are doubts whether this creature can be called a man or whether he should be recognized as a lower being - the predecessor of man. This doubt alone clearly shows that it is difficult to draw a boundary between man and the animals below him, to which man is related in his organization and properties. The closest thing to man is the monkey, however, it was not the predecessor of man, but like man it evolved from a more distant ancestor and went its own way, and man, coming from the same root, went (thanks to some of its peculiarities) on a different higher road of development. Traces of this development were preserved in very valuable finds of skeletons in the Engis Cave (Belgium), the Neander Valley (Neanderthal man), then Cro-Magnon man (Cro-Magnon), Grenelle man (Crenelle), man from Krapina, etc. were found. The layers in which the named skeletons were found and along with them the bones of long-extinct animals (hyena, cave bear, etc.) made it possible to accurately determine the age of fossil humans. In recent times (1900–1902), the remains of Neanderthal man have become the subject of repeated research and criticism by prominent scientists (Schwalbe, Klaatsch). From this study it turned out that the frontal part of the head turns out to be less developed in this person, and in terms of the properties of the skull, such a person occupies a middle place between higher apes and humans (Homo Sapiens) and even stands closer to a monkey. The capacity of the skull of Neanderthal man ranks very low among modern humans, as the following figures show:

An examination of the femur and its articular surfaces showed that the Neanderthal was a creature that did not yet fully possess the ability to walk on two legs. Neanderthal man, in any case, stands on the border of the Quaternary (diluvial) and Tertiary ages. The humanoid creature, which belongs to the tertiary age, is a form lower than man. This creature is named Pithecanthropus. A comparison of the skull of a diluvial man with the skull of a monkey shows that the capacity of the human skull exceeds the monkey skull by 2–2.5 times, so here we have an inexpressible superiority of the first over the second. On the other hand, a comparison of diluvial man with the modern lower human races (Negro) shows that this race occupies a middle position between Neanderthal man and the higher modern races (Caucasian or white).

The greatest success that man achieved by rising above the animal world depended, among other reasons, on favorable external conditions, namely, on the warm climate that existed throughout Europe and Asia before the Ice Age, when such flora grew even in the far northern latitudes , which is currently characteristic of the tropical zone. During this “warm” time of the Earth’s existence, man arose, judging by the fact that he lost hair on almost his entire body (a sign that the external environment allowed such a change).

Tertiary man, although he is not yet considered a member of the human race, already uses the most elementary tools made of stone. It is obvious that the boundary between human and lower or subhuman forms is not perceptible and, of course, it can only be conditional. In recent times (1901), the already quite significant list of finds of diluvial man was supplemented by the significant discovery of a number of skeletons in Krapina, in Croatia, described by Professor of the University of Zagreb Gorjanovic (Homo Crapinensis). The skeletons turned out to belong to the short-headed type of people, like Cro-Magnon man (in France). On the other hand, Neanderthal man is long-headed, like Grenelle man. Thus, it turns out that already in ancient times the type of person differed in its essential features. It is obvious that either a person came from different pairs, or the living conditions and removal of people to different places of residence gave rise to the free development of anatomical deviations. The possibility of fruitful crossings between all races existing on earth speaks for the origin of man from one common root. However, the differences between people in terms of height, head shape and color of the integument are so great and significant that it is necessary to come to the conclusion (Deniker, Kane, Ripley, etc.) that these differences were established extremely long ago, i.e. that they are contemporary with oneself the most ancient period of mankind.

The current diversity of human types is so significant that, regardless of the primitive difference in types, over time, secondary differences arose as a consequence of the fact that human races moved from place to place and, meeting one another, gave rise to new anthropological ones through crossings. combinations in which the properties and characteristics of the original producers continued to exist for a long time. Since the physical traces (signs) of the previous ones continued to be felt in the emerging new races, this circumstance makes it possible to find the distant “old” in the “newest”. These traces were left at the place where the race came from, and at the places through which it passed, and, finally, where it finally stopped (Ratzel). These traces remained not only in the earth (fossil remains), but also in the blood and living forms of generations.

According to Kane, the common ancestor of man, from whom the existing races (white, Mongolian, black) descended, lived on the now non-existent Indo-African continent (the remains of which survived in the form of Madagascar, Mascarene, Seychelles and other islands), and hence the first groups of people moved to Asia, Australia and to Europe through Africa (and across the isthmus that existed on the site of the Mediterranean Sea). This happened in the middle of the Tertiary period (in the Miocene era), when it was warm throughout the globe (when even Spitsbergen had subtropical flora). It was easy for settlers to reach the New World from Europe and Asia. From the original three groups or divisions arose all the variety of modern races.

The resulting races did not remain at the place of their origin, but moved around. Thus, the Caucasian race from its homeland - Eurafrica (border territories of Europe and Africa) spread throughout Europe, then across Siberia to Japan and to India and from there to Australasia (adjacent territories of Australia - Asia) and Polynesia. With such migration (relocation) of the white race into the territory of the yellow race, the first crossing of the yellow and white races followed, noticed in Manchuria, Korea, Siberia, Turkestan and the Malay Archipelago. In the Malay-Polynesian territory, not only whites and yellows met, but also blacks, which gave rise to new variations of humanity - mixed types. The American type differentiated from the yellow, i.e., Asian root (the migration path for yellow people lay through the Bering Strait, warm at that time, and the Aleutian Islands). In the Tertiary geological era, the same road existed from Europe to America through Greenland and Labrador. The migration took place in the Stone Age (judging by the tools). The further evolution of the white race (division) occurred geographically within the Mediterranean Sea. From here the whites spread throughout Asia, North Africa and Europe. Thus, Semites, Hamites and Aryans arose, settling - the first in Asia, the second in North Africa and the third in Europe. The Aryans are the fruit of later evolution, arising from the depths of the white race (with a tiny admixture of yellow blood). The Aryans discovered outstanding talent among humanity. The Aryans include the ancient Greeks, Romans, Celts, Slavs, Germans and Lithuanians. A common language gave the Aryans an important, spiritual tool: entering into combinations with the aborigines, the Aryans gave them their own language (like, for example, the Russians gave the Finns), with whom they merged.

In Europe, in the most remote times, there existed four different Aryan races (developed from one of the primary divisions); two of them were tall, two were short. Some tall ones had long heads, while others had short heads. The same goes for short people. The modern peoples of Europe arose through crossing and mixing; in the composition of each of them we find four main roots in various proportions and modifications (short-headed, tall and short, long-headed, tall and short). These indigenous groups also differed in hair and skin color.

The fate of the Slavs. The appearance of the Russians. The starting point for the development of the Slavs, like most Europeans, was the Mediterranean coast, where some of the Slavs still live. From the coast of the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas, the Slavs moved north (five centuries BC) and, having met the Germans on the way, pressed by them, turned to the east, where in turn they came across Finnish tribes (who lived from the North to Kiev and to Asia and in Asia itself). The gradual mixing and blood union of Slavs and Finns resulted in the Russian people. The latter included partly Normans (very few), partly Tatars (very few) and, finally, an unknown people who lived in the territory of central Russia before the Finns arrived there (Zaborovsky).

b) Physical characteristics of the main human races (and their divisions)

To avoid ambiguities in all further presentation, we will focus on the words: race and people. The name of a people or a nation must be understood as all the inhabitants of a certain territory, united on the basis of language, literature, public institutions, way of life and the historical past (Kane). This is also Renan's definition. But such a political or national unity does not always correspond to a racial or blood unity: nations are for the most part composed of diverse (anthropologically and physically) elements. Determining these elements is the most important task, since the general physical makeup, health, strength of the nation and its spiritual qualities depend on them. Since the unification of a group of people into a nation or people often did not occur through violence, but was a consequence of natural rapprochement and fusion; then the psychologist cannot help but see in this phenomenon the nature of a natural event arising from the requirements of evolution and the progress of life. It was precisely in this peaceful, purely evolutionary way that the unification of the Slavs and Finns followed, giving the Russian nation, or the Russian people with a single Slavic language, but with each component retaining its physical and spiritual qualities, which were included, as a biological and moral ingredient, in a new unit - the people .

According to the currently generally accepted division of the human race in relation to its origin, the existence of three primitive races is accepted:

White or European (Caucasian)

Yellow or Mongolian (Asian)

Black or Negro (African)

The peoples living in America and Australia are already derivatives or closely related to these three main groups of the human race. Each of the named three races has its own sharp, distinctive features, both in physical structure and in spiritual terms, that is, in the sense of character, talents, and, consequently, in the sense of future, which depends on these basic biological data. The main features of races are also noticeable in the secondary or derivative races that come from them, which are the modern races and modern peoples.

After these necessary general remarks about the territorial distribution of primitive and later human races, we proceed to their description, adhering to the data of Deniker, Keith, Ratzel, Bogdanov and D. N. Anuchin, as well as the Moscow Anthropological School (which provided such important services to the successes of general and Russian anthropology ).

The most general characteristics of the primitive human races (in a brief formulation) are the following distinctive features, which, for clarity, we note in a parallel arrangement.

Physical properties	White race	Yellow	Black
Spreading	Europe, North African and Western Asia	Asia, America	Africa
Body height	High	Average	Short
Head shape	Medium-headedness (mesocephaly)	Short head (brachycephaly)	Long-headed (dolichocephaly)
Skin, eye and hair color	White (with dark pigments)	Yellow	Black
Hairy system	Abundant plant. on the beard, mustache and sideburns	Liquid plant on the beard	Lack of plant on the face (in some representatives of this race)
Facial expressions	Low eyebrows	High eyebrows	Rough facial features

According to Deniker, the human race is divided into the following races.

Classification of human races.

I. The Bushman race in its pure form among the Bushmen and Hottentots. The type is found among many black tribes south of Africa.

II. Negro group.

1) Negrito race: a) Negrili, b) Asian Negrito.

2) Blacks: a) Sudanese and Guinean, b) Bantu.

3) Melanesian race (with less curly hair and lighter skin than the previous one).

III. 5) The Ethiopian race is pure among the Bejas and Gallas, mixed among the Somalis, Abyssinians, etc.

IV. 6) The Australian race has been preserved in its pure form.

V. 7) Dravidian or Melano-Indian race among the South Indian peoples. The Vedas come close to this type.

VI. 8) The Assyroid race is clearly represented on Assyrian monuments. These include the Persians, Hajeli, Ators, some Kurdish tribes, some Armenians and Jews.

VII. 9) The Indo-Afghan race (Afghans, Rajputs, Brahmin caste) has changed a lot due to crossings.

VIII. North African group.

10) Arab or Semitic race, most of the peoples of Syria, Mesopotamia, Balochistan.

11) Berber race.

IX. White dark-colored group.

12) Mediterranean-coastal race.

13) Island-Iberian race.

14) Western race.

15) Adriatic race.

X. Light-colored group.

16) Northern race.

17) Eastern race.

XI. 18) Ainos race (one of the elements of the population of northern Japan).

XII. Ocean group.

19) Polynesian race

20) Indonesian race (peoples of the Asian archipelago).

XIII. American group.

21) South American race.

22) North American race.

23) Central American race.

24) Patagonian race.

XIV. 25) Eskimo race (in its pure form on the east coast of Greenland and northern Canada).

XV. 26) Lapp race.

XVI. A Eurasian group found in Europe and Asia.

27) Ugric race (Ostyaks, Permyaks, Cheremis).

28) Turkic race (Kyrgyz, Astrakhan Tatars, etc.).

XVII. 29) The Mongolian race is divided into two varieties: Tungus and South Mongolian.

The main and secondary characteristics that distinguish races and peoples represent great diversity, but since these characteristics are quite stable and their very modification in hereditary transmission occurs with a certain legality, familiarization with these characteristics and their grouping will not only make it possible to classify the individual under study or the tribe under study, but may, in addition, indicate a more or less distant phylogenetic past preceding a given individual or a given state of the tribe. This phylogenetic heredity is as important for the psychologist as morbid heredity with its anamnestic precedents is for the psychiatrist. In view of this, some details are inevitable here, but familiarization with them is full of significant practical significance. The research program developed by anthropologists concerns the following data: 1) body height, 2) shape and size of the head (face and nose), 3) skin color, 4) eye color, 5) ear shape, 6) other characteristics.

Body height

Height seems to be one of the most important anthropological characteristics. Already newborns differ in the length of their body, as the following table shows:

Average height in millimeters.

Nationalities	Boys	Girls
Annamese	474	464
Russians from St. Petersburg	477	473
Germans from Cologne	486	484
Americans from Boston	490	482
English	496	491
French from Paris	499	492

In short races, the newborns are probably also smaller, which can be verified by observation.

Adult height varies between the extreme limits of 1250 and 1990 millimeters, while the usual limits are 1464–1745 mm. According to height, people are divided into four groups (Topinar), namely, counting in millimeters:

Short stature - below 1600 millimeters

Below average - from 1600–1650 mm

Above average - 1650 mm

High height - 1700 mm

or, discarding the final zero, we get height in centimeters.

Of the peoples of the globe - the shortest: Bushmen and pygmies (Negro tribe), inhabitants of Indochina, Japan and the Malay Archipelago. Below-average height is typical for residents of Asia, eastern and southern Europe. Above-average height is characteristic of Iranian-Hindu peoples, Semites and residents of central Europe. Residents of northern Europe, America, as well as residents of Polynesia and Africa (both blacks and Ethiopians) are tall.

Growth is currently recognized as one of the important signs due to its visibility and correct accounting. It makes it possible to recognize the belonging of the individual or tribe under study to one or another original race, and this last circumstance resolves the question of mental characteristics that are inherent in the anthropological makeup.

Women, in terms of their height, are usually somewhat smaller than men, in proportions from 70-150 millimeters, with an average of 120 mm; so that with regard to height, women are divided, like men, into four named groups, and the height of women is obtained by subtracting 120 mm. from the corresponding height of men. A prolonged vertical position and carrying heavy objects reduces height by 2–3 centimeters (from compression of the intervertebral cartilage), but night rest returns the true height.

Regarding the question of pygmies, which has always interested humanity, the famous Swiss anatomist and anthropologist Kalman summarizes the main results of his research in the following statements:

1. Next to the tall races, you can find short races on all continents with a height of 120 to 150 centimeters and a brain weight of 900 to 1200 grams.

2. Pygmies are also found on the American continent, where they are proven to be abundant in Peru and other places.

3. In Europe, discoveries of pygmies are becoming more and more frequent. In terms of time, pygmies appear from the Neolithic period (in Switzerland about 10,000 BC) to the present day (Sicily); in relation to space, they are widespread in Sicily, Switzerland, France and Germany, and according to Sergi, they have also been proven in Russia.

4. Pygmies are not degenerate descendants of tall races, but are healthy, fully developed, albeit short, variants of the human race.

5. The position of the pygmies in the system of tall races is based on phylogenetic relationship, and the pygmies must be considered as the primitive races from which the tall races of humanity developed.

6. The reports of ancient writers, both naturalists and poets, regarding the existence of pygmies in those swampy areas, which, in their opinion, serve as the beginning of the Nile River, generally agree with reality. In the burial grounds of Upper Egypt, dating back to primitive eras and the period of the first dynasties, pygmies are also found next to the tall type. These burial grounds partly belong to the Neolithic era. In Russia, the spread of the short (pygmy) type of person among the population has been proven by extensive research by D. N. Anuchin in his work on the growth of conscription for military service.

Skin hair

The hair of different races differs very significantly in its location and properties. Anthropology distinguishes four types of hair: straight, wavy, curly and woolly. Straight or smooth hair falls down in a mass, like a ponytail, this depends on the fact that such hair has an almost completely cylindrical shape and appears as a circle when cut. In wavy hair, each individual hair is a very long, elongated spiral. In curly hair, individual hairs are spiral, but this is a very large helical spiral, in which the diameter of the rings is about a centimeter. Woolly or rune-shaped hair is characterized by extremely narrow spiral curls (with a spiral diameter of no more than nine millimeters; the spiral rings are closer to each other and stand closer together). In the last three types of hair (wavy, curly, woolly), each hair in diameter is an ellipse more or less elongated: the more elongated the ellipse, the more the hair curls into a curl. Such curls in blacks form spherical tangled bundles. Wavy hair is characteristic of the Caucasian race, straight hair is characteristic of the Mongolian and American races, and woolly hair is characteristic of the Bushmen and Negroes.

Pigment

The pigment is located in the skin and iris. The distribution of the pigment on which the color of hair, skin and iris depends, and the very properties of the pigment are very different among different races.

This circumstance serves as one of the most important signs for recognizing races. Not only are the yellow and black races pigmented, but the white race also contains some pigment. All three types of pigmentation are divided into shades based on the density of the pigment.

To compare the degree of pigmentation of hair and eyes and to avoid arbitrariness, Broca's chromatic tables are used (they are recognized as the best).

Based on the pigmentation of their iris, eyes are usually divided into three categories: light eyes (with blue or gray pigment), black or brown eyes and, finally, gray eyes.

Various variations in pigmentation depend on the crossing of different races. The complete absence of pigment is called albinism.

A very significant anthropological feature is found in children, namely: their pigmentation is often weak, especially in the first months, and then intensifies. This circumstance is a phylogenetic sign and indicates that the ancestors of such subjects belonged to light races, which subsequently mixed with dark ones, and this color sequence is phylogenetically manifested in children in their early years.

Observations of the Russian population have shown that, based on the combination of hair color and eye color, the Russian population (middle provinces) is divided into three types: light type - with light eyes and hair; brunette type (dark hair and eyes), mixed type (other combinations). The percentage of a mixed type of hair and eye color (60% of the population has this type) is of great interest in the sense that it shows how closely the elements included in the Russian tribe were welded together: the higher the percentage of the mixed type, the more lost they were. it contains the features of the original producers, who gave way to the newly formed mixed type. The Great Russians represent the greatest degree of mixing among the Slavs; Little Russians and Belarusians stand close to them. The least mixtures are produced by the Serbo-Croates of the Adriatic Sea coast - only 26.5%; their light type is 15%, and their dark type is 58% (Weisbach). Little Russians, according to Dr. Krasnov’s observations, occupy an intermediate place. Thus, as the Slavs move away from the Adriatic to the northeast, where they encounter the Finns, their pigmentation turns from darker to lighter.

Head shape and size

Since man has risen high above the entire animal world thanks solely to his brain and his mental gifts, the study of the head, as the seat of the brain, belongs to the most important departments of anthropology, and this is all the more so since, as anthropological studies have shown, the shape and size of the head are among the most established characteristics of race. This department, called craniology, is divided into a descriptive part and a measuring part; the latter is called craniometry. Measuring and descriptive features complement each other and will be presented together.

The capacity of the skull and, accordingly, the weight of the brain ranges from 1,100 cubic meters. sant. up to 2,200 cu.m. website. This value significantly depends on the properties of the race. The white and yellow races have a cranial capacity of 1,500-1,600 cc. sant.; the black (Negro) race has a smaller cranial capacity, namely: from 1,400-1,500 cubic meters. sant.; among the lower races - Australians, Bushmen, Andamanese - the capacity of the skull is 1250–1350 cubic meters. sant.

An idea of the size of the head or the capacity of the skull can be deduced approximately by measuring the greatest horizontal circumference of the head (a circular line passing through the glabella and through the occipital protuberance). It is equal to 525–550 millimeters for men, 500–525 mm for women. Likewise, the size of the head can be judged by the size of two head diameters: longitudinal (from the glabella to the greater occipital tubercle in a straight line) and transverse (the greatest transverse distance in a straight line between the most distant points - below the parietal tubercles or above the edge of the auricles, where such a removal will be the greatest - ubi inueniaur).

All measurements on the head are made - circular or arcuate - with a braid, rectilinear - with a sliding thick compass.

The shape of the skull usually appears oval, and this ovality is not the same, both in different races and in individual individuals. The numerical indicator of the shape of the skull is the so-called cephalic index (index cephalicus); it shows the ratio of the longitudinal (usually larger) diameter of the head to the transverse (smaller) diameter. This ratio is usually expressed in decimal numbers, counting the larger index as 100; for example, if according to the measurement it turns out that the longitudinal diameter is 185 millimeters, and the transverse diameter is 145, then to obtain the indicator, we multiply the smaller diameter by 100 and divide by the larger diameter, we get the figure 78.35, which expresses the head indicator for this case. The rounder the head, the less its two diameters differ from each other, and vice versa. According to the size of the cephalic index, the skulls, according to Broca's nomenclature, are divided as follows:

On mesocephalic (average annual), scephalic. indicate = 77.7–80.0.

Dolichocephalic (long-headed), where head. indicate less than the stated average.

Brachycephalic (short-headed), where the cephalic index is larger than the indicated average number.

Subjects with heads of various sizes are called briefly: mesocephals, dolichocephals and brachycephals, or according to Russian nomenclature - medium-headed, long-headed and short-headed. With generally accepted divisions, the heads or skulls are classified according to the cephalic indexes into the following five groups:

Based on the size of the head index, it turns out that the Negroes, Eskimos, Ainos and Central European races are long-headed, many Slavic tribes belong to the short-headed or medium-sized tribes, the British are long-headed.

By height, heads or skulls are divided into low, medium and high, and the distance is measured from the highest point of the head in a standing position (from the crown) to the base of the upper incisors or to the bottom of the chin using a sliding compass.

If the skull or head is viewed from above, then the picture obtained in a planar outline is called the Blumenbach norm; when viewed from the front, you get the facial norm and, finally, when viewed from the side, you get the lateral norm, or profile.

According to the facial norm, one can judge the shape of the face by taking the ratio of the width of the face to the length of the face: this ratio is called the facial index (the width of the face is the distance in a straight line between the most prominent parts of the zygomatic arches; the length of the face is the distance from the bridge of the nose (Glabella) to the root of the incisors or to the bottom edge of the chin). According to the facial index, people are divided into short-faced, or broad-faced (chamaeroprosopi) and long-faced, or narrow-faced (leptoprosopi).

Other signs

The orbital sockets, determined only on the skull, are very important for determining the race. Measuring the width and length of the orbit gives the figure of the orbital index, and according to this index, skulls are divided into mid-orbital (mesosemi) with an index of 83–89, low-orbital (microsemi) less than 83 and high-orbital (megasemi) - from 90 or more.

The nose is divided into four types according to its shape: 1. straight nose, 2. upturned or snub-nosed, 3. humpbacked and 4. flat (flattened or wide). The nose is measured in length (from the root to the base of the septum) and width (lightly touching the wings of the nose with a compass), and thus a nasal index is obtained. If it fluctuates between 70–85, then such people are called medium-nosed, if it is more than 85 - broad-nosed, if it is less than 70 - narrow-nosed. The nostrils are normally extended in length from the outside and from the back to the inside and forward and open downwards (but not outwards).

Eyes, according to their size and shape, are divided into large eyes and small ones (which depends not on the very size of the eyeball, but on the degree of development of the eyelids, i.e., on the cut of the eyelids). The Semites have large eyes (the hair-eyed beauty described by Solomon in the Song of Songs); Mongols have small eyes. According to the shape of the eyelid section, the eyes are straight (the eyelid section is horizontal) and oblique, like the Japanese (the eyelid section is oblique: the outer corners of the palpebral fissure are higher than the inner ones). Mongolian eyes have a special shape based on the structure of the eyelids. The cleft, or cut of the eyelids, in such an eye has the shape of a very elongated triangle, with its sharp end facing outward, or the shape of a fish with its head facing the bridge of the nose and its tail facing outward; The uppermost eyelid in such an eye is covered with very loose, wide skin, which gives a fold overhanging the eyelashes (double Mongolian eyelid). The lower eyelid may have similar properties, and then the palpebral fissure has a typical triangle shape. This kind of eye is typical of Finns. Among the Russian population you can find one and the other eye shape, as a trace of distant crossings of Russians with Mongols and Finns.

The outer ear is measured in length and width and has its own index (the so-called physiognomic index of the ear). The ear can be smaller or larger, it can lie close to the head or be more or less distant from it (up to a right angle); finally, the ear can differ in certain irregularities in its general shape and in individual parts. Anthropological features of the ear are, firstly, Darwin's tubercle, and secondly, Satyr's tubercle.

According to the physiognomic index of the ear, the races are distributed in the following order: Europeans, Altai races, pure Mongols, Negroes (Vorobiev), i.e. Europeans have the most harmonious ear and then it becomes more and more rounded in the order in which the races are listed. Darwin's tubercle, which brings the human ear closer to the ear of animals, indicates only a delay in the development of the external ear and has no other significance (Vorobiev).

According to Schaffer, the percentage of pronounced forms of Darwin's tubercle varies in Germany between 15–25%. Other features of the ear (changes in the curl, growth of the lobe or its absence, etc.) are not signs of degeneration and do not occur more often in mentally ill people than in the healthy population; but protruding ears seem to be an undoubted sign of degeneration and are more common among criminals (Frigerio) and the mentally ill (Vorobiev). This last author gives the following statistics for various degrees of ear protrusion in healthy and mentally ill Great Russians.

Thus, from Vorobyov’s work it follows that most of the anomalies in the structure of the external ear, which until recently were accustomed to look at as a sign of degeneration, are rather simple underdevelopment and immaturity of forms in an organ that is in decline in humans. To distinguish between immature or unfinished forms, Vorobiev gives the following characteristics of the mature ear shape: “The general contour of the ear is outlined by a well-developed curl, without Darwin’s tubercle (or only with a weakly expressed tubercle), without Satyr’s tubercle, with a lobe well demarcated from the skin of the cheek and a tragus of a quadrangular rather than conical shape.” Vorobyov gives the following statistics on mature and immature forms of the ear.

Women's breasts, according to their shape, present differences in their appearance, on the basis of which Ploss establishes four shapes: 1. Breasts resembling a segment of a ball (less than a hemisphere), 2. hemispherical, 3. conical and 4. pear-shaped.

Borderline and critical signs in anthropology

In conclusion of the above presentation of racial characteristics and characteristics, we consider it necessary to dwell on one issue that is very important from a scientific and practical point of view. We are talking about the process of degeneration and the signs of degeneration. As mentioned above, some psychiatrists are somewhat skeptical about many “signs of degeneration” and require evidence that this or that anatomical feature is a sign of the biological decline of the organism, and not a simple anthropological variation that has an indifferent, and perhaps even progressive meaning. The question of the boundary line between phenomena of two different orders and the criterion for their recognition is very significant.

The observations of Dr. Vorobyov (Private Associate Professor at Moscow University) on the external ear, made on extensive material, bring significant light to this important question. Vorobiev proved that, along with degeneration, but completely independently of it, there is another biological process, namely, partly the process of incomplete development, partly the emergence and formation of anthropological variants. Both processes can be observed on such a large scale among a completely healthy population that degeneration is out of the question. In Vorobyov’s work we are introduced to a number of signs that were often attributed to signs of degeneration, but which in reality turn out to be simple deviations or variations that are not at all dangerous for neuropsychic health. These deviations or variations are either the fruit of unfinished development, or a phenomenon of phylogenetic decline of an organ that has become unnecessary for life. In the latter case, the life process obviously has the character not of decline, but of progress of life. The facts found by Vorobyov and his conclusions are all the more valuable because in him he combined a specialist anthropologist with a specialist psychiatrist. They have long tried to delimit the transitional period of life phenomena and recognize those areas where life declines and those where, on the contrary, it expands and opens up. Many facts in this area have been discovered and explained by psychiatry. Anatomists and morphologists, for their part, also point to similar facts: in many anatomical varieties they see not an accident or a “game of nature,” but one of the undoubted links (Ruge) of the development process that has gone through, but is not yet completed by man (Klaatsch). According to this latter scientist, all the physical properties of modern man fall into three groups: the first contains those features that are characteristic of man’s distant ancestors - primates, others were acquired by man already during the human period of his existence, and, finally, others arise and are being formed at the present time. Thus, for example, the excessive length of the arms of Australians and blacks can be attributed to the first group of phenomena being analyzed: currently, such length is noticed in newborns as a transitional phylogenetic sign, and in idiots as a permanent sign, i.e., as a sign of degeneration . The curvature of the radius also indicates that distant period when a person did not yet walk, but crawled and jumped.

The tendency of the lower races to squat also indicates weakness of the lower limbs, since the strength of the legs necessary for an upright position was acquired gradually, and the higher races no longer need to squat. Likewise, among Australians, the lordosis of the spine is less pronounced than among Europeans, and this is already noticeable even by eye without precise measurements. This underdevelopment of the spine shows that they, even less than other races, had time to express secondary changes in the spine, depending on the vertical position of a person when walking. From these explanations of Klaatsch it is clear that many features of bodily organization have the meaning of underdevelopment, but not decline, or indicate lower forms of life, but not its decomposition or destruction. Thus, the need for broad anthropological research in the population becomes obvious to clarify questions about signs of degeneration and physiological variations. These investigations will make it possible to correctly distinguish the signs of pathological or degenerative heredity from the phenomena of anthropological differentiation as a process of healthy life. In all doubtful cases, anthropological audits in the living population and anatomical certificates in the dead and extinct population are necessary.

Artistic canon of the human body

Sculptors and artists of all times have tried to notice and determine the proportions of the human body. This kind of determination of body proportions was called a canon by the ancient Greeks. There are no authentic Greek examples of the canon, but there is a copy from the famous work of Polyctetus: “Doriphoros”. The canon outlines the proportions that correspond to the ideal of human forms in the creative reproduction of such observant people as artists are by the very nature of their talent and their profession. Great artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Durer, Rubens and many others were engaged in determining the shapes and proportions of the human body. Thus, the observation of forms and proportions has been carried out for a long time, and the results obtained can significantly contribute to the task that anthropology also pursues. We present here, from the above-mentioned work of Paul Richet, artistic data regarding the proportions of the body. Although these data do not have the full significance of anthropological quantities, nevertheless, they are not without high practical and real value: they contain indications of the same ideal plan and the same complete forms to which nature strives, and which the artist was able to notice and to figure out.

In fact, much of what appears to our eye in the ordinary forms of the human body, at one time represents completely completed forms, but at another time what we observe clearly has the appearance of something immature, not quite perfect, like an unfinished until the end of the phylogenetic structure, captured in the midst of work. Those forms that the artist poetically reproduces and those that form the object of the anthropologist’s observations are related to each other as a project is to execution, or as a drawn plan is to an actual building. A comparison of both can be significantly useful: knowledge of complete, ideal forms will provide a model for the necessary comparisons, but vice versa - fine art can learn a lot from anthropology, which is accustomed to being guided by average values from actual material. Topinard, who made an attempt to build a canon on anthropological data, was convinced, as he himself says, of both the excellent eye of the artists and the merits of the measurements made by anthropologists. Topinar attaches significant importance to artistic canons.

As is clear from the drawings, the main measure of artists in conveying the proportion of parts is the size of the head from the top of the head to the chin and half or the middle of this value, passing through the edge of the lower eyelid. The entire figure of a person measured by such a template is equal to 7.5, and with high growth - 8 measures.

In the subsequent presentation, other examples will become clear of the great benefits of combining data from the scientific and artistic fields for the success of such a complex specialty as psychology.

c) Physiological characteristics of races

The limited data available on this issue can be classified under the following headings.

A. Sebaceous and sweat glands. Bischoff made a very theoretically important observation about the relatively small number of sweat glands in the skin of the natives of Tierra del Fuego. In view of the physiological importance of the sweat glands, through which many harmful metabolic products and bacterial toxins are released in humans, one or another number of sweat glands can be significant for the well-being of the neuropsychic system (in case of self-poisoning, illness and under conditions of physical work). As an antithesis to this fact, one can note the centuries-old national habit of Russians to wash themselves under sweatshop conditions; This habit attracted the attention of foreigners.

b. Vertical position of the body. Facts have already been indicated above indicating that not only in the structure of the body, but also in the habits of some lower races, the features of an incomplete or not fully matured habit of an upright position of the body continue to be reflected, which is expressed in the tendency to squat - a tendency that which the European race has already completely liberated itself. The very pose they take at the same time shows that the lower races have not yet fully mastered that constantly vigorous tension of the muscles of the whole body and spine, which is characteristic of whites. As an antithesis to this fact, one can point to the Russian habit of praying in no other way than in a standing position - which especially strikes an observer in the East, where prayer is performed while squatting or lying down.

V. Sensory acuity. The general opinion has been established that the lower races are superior to the higher in the acuity of the senses, but the observations and experiments of Meyers on the inhabitants of the Murray Islands (by means of a pendulum making 5 strokes per second and easily stopped and restarted) showed with perfect clarity that the acuity of hearing among the islanders less than Europeans. Wild ones only get very used to familiar sounds, which they expect in a certain period and number, and for the perception of which they are prepared. Actually, their hearing acuity is weaker. Here we are dealing with that partial sophistication of perception that is observed in animals, but only in relation to some impressions, for example, in mice in relation to soft rustling sounds; This is a kind of narrow mental adaptation, but not a universal ability.

d. The comparative adaptability of peoples to the external environment and immunity to diseases is not the same (W. Ripley). This circumstance, according to Ripley, is one of the important conditions for the future of races. Apparently, the most hardy race are the Chinese and the Mongols in general: they are content with monotonous food, tireless in their work and have little predisposition to consumption and syphilis. On the contrary, Europeans are threatened by consumption, syphilis and alcoholism. In Russia, foreigners, that is, aborigines, like American aborigines, are extremely sensitive to the effects of alcohol. In turn, consumption is fatal for blacks. For Americans, syphilis is very dangerous and often fatal; Syphilis is just as dangerous for the Malays and has serious consequences even when they are crossed with other races. With numerous relocations (migration) of peoples that took place in historical and prehistoric times, life in new places could be either favorable or unfavorable for emigrants. This circumstance could result in the survival and reproduction of emigrants with their superiority over the natives or the death of the newcomers due to their inability to adapt to the new climate. Apparently, Jews are distinguished by the greatest adaptability to different climates: they are gifted with the properties of anthropological cosmopolitanism, as Brock puts it.

e. Crossing of races and miscegenation clarify to a large extent the question of the relative physiological characteristics and properties of races. First of all, the question of crossings is very remarkable from the point of view that crossing is possible between all tribes of the human race with favorable success, that is, crossing is crowned with fertility: almost all modern races arose through crossing. In general, the issue of blood mixture must be considered underdeveloped. Apparently, in some cases such a mixture led to tribal improvement, as we see in the example of the Turkic tribes after their crossing with whites. Quite the opposite happened with the classical Greeks, whose high spiritual qualities died, probably as a result of their crossing with Albanians, Slavs and other peoples. But a particularly striking example is provided by the Japanese, whose race consists of three sharply heterogeneous elements: the Negritos (black race), the white Ainos (Caucasian race) and the Mongolian elements (yellow race). These three main races, as a result of successive immigrations, found themselves on a common island territory, merged with each other ethnographically and anthropologically and gave rise to a race more talented than the race of blacks and yellows separately. In the Japanese population, the named components are sharply distinguishable and at the present time, the Ainos are recognized the first time; they are so similar to the Russians that Vernier, not without reason, calls them “Russians from Moscow.” Similar to this is the opinion of Belts, who even believes that the Ainos are directly part of the Russian tribe, that they were driven onto the European Plain by hordes of Tungus (Huns), whose movements into Europe began in the 1st century AD.

Through crossing, the transmission and modification of both physical characteristics and mental abilities occurs. About crossing, Professor Quatrefage expresses himself as follows: the races of the future, due to crossing, will differ less in blood, will be more close to each other, will have more common aspirations, needs and interests. All this will create higher forms of life compared to those we know. He bases his conclusion on the fact that all modern peoples of the world are the fruit of crossing: blood mixtures occur before our eyes.

d) Psychic abilities of races

The mental characteristics and properties of races, like the physical type, belong to stable characteristics, and one can generally accept as a principle that the basic mental traits of the anthropologically original race are retained for a long time and firmly in the derived tribes. If, however, sometimes the mental make-up of a tribe seems sharply different and dissimilar from its distant spiritual roots, then such a gross result may depend on the diversity or other grouping of the basic mental traits. If these latter are sought out and isolated in psychological analysis, then the indisputable continuity of basic mental properties becomes obvious. Thus, in national characters we are more often dealing not with newly born spiritual qualities, but with a different combination and with different shades of long-standing hereditary traits. To simplify the task, it is convenient to take as a starting point the most common typical features of the primitive races: white, yellow and black.

A. Main races

The black race is among the least gifted on the globe. In the body structure of its representatives there are noticeably more points of contact with the class of monkeys than in other races. The capacity of the skull and the entire brain of blacks is less than in other races, and, accordingly, spiritual abilities are less developed. Negroes never constituted a large state and did not play a leading or prominent role in history, although in distant times they were much more widespread numerically and territorially than subsequently. The weakest side of the black individual and the black race is the mind: in portraits one can always notice a weak contraction of the superior orbital muscle (the muscle of thought according to Duchenne), and even this muscle in blacks is anatomically developed much weaker than in whites, yet it is the true difference of a person from animals, constituting specifically human muscle. In agreement with this stands another feature, namely: that general, harmonious tension in the muscles of the body, which corresponds to attention, and which gives the figure of a white man an imprint of freshness, strength and energy, is not an outstanding and noticeable physiognomic fact in a black man, which is why even young subjects seem old-looking and clumsy. Finally, both frontal and facial expressions bear traces of incomplete physiognomic differentiation - which is even expressed anatomically in frequent fusions of those facial muscles that are much more often found separated in other races; thanks to this, the face of a black person generally appears rougher, devoid of subtle expression, in comparison with the face of a white person.

The yellow race, especially in its most typical representatives, bears the clearly expressed imprint of the predominance of the frontal muscle over the orbital muscle - due to this, the eyebrows almost always stand high and have an arched appearance. This combination corresponds to the first phase of states of attention - surprise, surprise, but at the same time it shows that attention in its evolution does not go further and does not finally lead to a high tension of thought, and therefore the muscle of thought - orbitalis superior - is always contracted weaker than the frontal muscle , and even this state of affairs has become familiar to the race. Based on such a facial portrait, it is necessary to conclude that, despite the developed and disciplined external attention, the yellow race, nevertheless, has not developed the age-old habit of intense mental work and mental perseverance. But at the same time, a sharp contraction of the inferior orbital muscle, which gives the lower eyelid straightness and high standing, indicates the tirelessness of the yellow ones. Finally, the gross predominance of the frontal muscle over the entire lower musculature of the face indicates the predominance of feeling over the mind, and probably the very degree or force of contraction of this muscle indicates feeling rather than intellect. It's not so much intelligence as it is surprise and surprise. With such a combination of basic mental forces, the will does not necessarily become on the side of mental acts, but can equally become at the service of both passions and elementary attention. The life history of the yellow race in Asia and America confirms this characterization. The yellow ones are attentive, persistent, tireless in peaceful work, agriculture, gardening, and small technology, but they did not create either sciences or arts, and, despite their ten-thousand-year history, their minds have not reached that sharpness and force of tension that turns into an insatiable thirst for knowledge and a deep need for intellectual life. In the midst of war, yellows, by the nature of their spirit, easily become fanatical, giving themselves over to feeling and passion rather than to intelligence and consideration.

The white race has the happiest combination of mental abilities - which is expressed in the even symmetrical development of mind, will and feeling. With such a mentality, the white race could realize in itself the ideal of comprehensive mental development and was the creator of the sciences and arts, the organizer of social and state life, the creator of sublime religions and world poetry, and improved the very living conditions with the help of incomparable mechanical and technical improvements. The psychic prototype of the white race was the ancient Greeks.

The ancient Greek race perished for reasons not yet fully understood, and although it continues to live ethnically and geographically, anthropologically it no longer exists, and everything that is mentally and artistically sublime, everything “classical” is now stored in museums and galleries , libraries as an invaluable heritage of the high spirit of the Greeks.

The Greeks apparently consisted of two anthropologically distinct parts. In Egyptian images, in the descriptions of Homer, in the characteristics of the physiognomist Polemon, the Greek is represented as a tall man, blond, with light eyes, a high forehead, and a small, sharply defined mouth (probably these were the Hellenes - the newcomers to whom Greece owes the most). But there was another dark-skinned type (probably Pelasgians - aborigines).

The Greek people consisted of a blood union of these two constituent anthropological parts.

The characteristic features of the Greek are liveliness of mind and feeling combined with a strong, mobile will. Hippocrates and Aristotle, with classical insight and accuracy, speak of balance of spirit as a distinctive feature of their compatriots. Thought has always taken a wide part in emotional unrest; that is why the Greek feeling could not turn into either pure passion or fanaticism, like among the yellow ones, where the will outweighs the mind. On the other hand, the strong development of feelings made the Greeks young at heart, in the apt words of Renan, or children, as the Egyptian high priest put it before Solon. The Greek's mind was so deeply developed that, as Thucydides put it, the Greek consisted entirely of thought. For the Greek, thinking was a pleasure, and mental work was easy work. The ideal Greek was Ulysses, who “saw cities and knew the thoughts of many people.” Taine contrasts the mind of the Greek with the mind of the Egyptians: the Egyptians, when asked by Herodotus about the cause of the Nile floods, could not answer anything, and even they did not have any assumptions on this important issue, and the Greeks, for whom the Nile was not so close, made three hypotheses about Nile, and, criticizing these hypotheses, Herodotus proposes a fourth. The subtle, ever-searching, inquisitive mind of the Greek created for the first time something that had not existed in the world until that time - pure science. Other also talented peoples, for example the Chaldeans, having made mental progress, put an end to the path of their development; but the Greek moved irresistibly forward along the road of the mind. Other peoples, for example the Semites, were too utilitarian - they were businessmen and merchants; The Greek was a scientist, thinker, and artist. For a Semite, for example, works of art were nothing more than objects of trade, which he fabricated (Foulier) according to a pattern; but the Greek, becoming a manufacturer, did not cease at the same time to be a thinker and artist. The Greek mind had two sides: with his imagination he hovered in an ideal world, and with his reason he did not protrude from the limits of real life. Such was this incomparable tiny race! In such a race, human language could for the first time develop to the height of true neuropsychic technology and artistry.

The classical Greeks anthropologically perished: they were partly exterminated physically through slavery and evictions, partly they changed and degenerated, thanks to the admixture of numerous foreign blood of Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Bulgarians, and Visigoths. Thanks to these conditions, the race perished, and second and third hand Hellenism arose in connection with it.

Without going into a description of the mental traits of various peoples around the globe - which is almost impossible - we will dwell on an outline of the mental type of the main nationalities of Europe, as well as the peoples inhabiting Russia.

Apparently, national traits depend mainly on the anthropological composition of nations, while the historical destinies of peoples play a secondary role. This finds decisive confirmation in the fact that the mental type, as we have seen through research and observation, always coincides with physical characteristics and anthropological characteristics. In view of this, in the following presentation, a parallel psychological description and a physical outline will be carried out.

b. Russians

The Russian people and the Russian national character represent one of the largest values formed before the eyes of history.

The original aboriginal race that inhabited what is now eastern Europe remains unknown. The second (?) settlers on the territory of what is now European Russia were various peoples and tribes of Finnish origin. According to the anthropological classification, the Finnish peoples belong to the white race; they came to the Eastern European Plain from the north and east and settled down to the Baltic Sea and to present-day Kyiv, making these places their strong homeland. Around the time of the Christian era, the Slavs began to approach this Finnish territory from the south through the Carpathians. A gradual peaceful mixing (Bestuzhev-Ryumin) was established between both races (Finnish and Slavic), which resulted in the Russian people. An anthropological study of the modern Great Russian tribe has shown that this tribe contains partly Finnish and partly Slavic individuals. There is also a slight admixture of other elements (Tatar, Mongolian). The Finnish part is characterized by a short head, a wide face, prominent cheekbones, small slanting eyes, average height, short legs, blond hair and light eyes. The Slavs are much less short-headed, even long-headed, dark-haired, tall with dark eyes. Next to such representatives, there is a significant amount (up to 60%) of a mixed type, combining individual features of both of the named types. This is the anthropological composition of the Great Russians. The Little Russians have the same tribal composition, only with a greater admixture of the purely Slavic type in physical terms. The mental traits of the Russian tribe correspond to the traits of its main constituent parts, i.e. Finnish and Slavic roots.

Topelius depicts the Finns with the following features: “Nature, fate and traditions have left a general imprint on the Finnish type, which, although it undergoes significant changes throughout the country, is still easily noticed by a foreigner. Common characteristics are: indestructible, enduring, passive strength; humility, perseverance with its reverse side - stubbornness; slow, thorough, deep thinking process; hence the slowly advancing, but uncontrollable anger; calm in mortal danger, caution when it has passed; taciturnity followed by an uncontrollable flow of speeches; the tendency to wait, postpone, but then often rush inappropriately; devotion to what is ancient, what is already known, and dislike of innovations; fidelity to duty, obedience to the law, love of freedom, hospitality, honesty and a deep desire for inner truth, revealed in a sincere, but faithful to the letter, fear of God. You recognize Finn by his isolation, restraint, and unsociability. It takes time for him to melt and become trusting, but then he becomes a true friend; he is often late, often stands in the middle of the road without noticing it himself, bows to an acquaintance he meets when he is already far away; is silent where it would be better to speak, but sometimes speaks where it would be better to remain silent; he is one of the best soldiers in the world, but he is bad at calculations, he sometimes sees gold under his feet and does not think of picking it up; he remains poor where others grow rich.” Admiral Stetting says: “You need to give the Finn a firecracker in the back to stir him up. As for appearance, the only things they have in common are average height and a strong build. Spiritual abilities need an external push... His desire to work depends on his mood.” Per Brahe (governor-general of Finland from 1648–1654 and founder of the university) said about the Finns that at home they idly lie on the stove, and abroad one of them works for three. Finally, a common feature of the Finns is a love of fairy tales, songs, riddles, etc. and a penchant for satire... These are the main spiritual traits of the Finnish root.

The main feature of the Slavs has long been their sensitive impressionability, nervous mobility, which corresponds to a finely developed feeling and a fairly developed mind. Both qualities cause liveliness of character and inconstancy. The most typical traits of this character are: sorrow, patience and greatness of spirit in the face of adversity. Rolston rightly says that the Russian people are prone to melancholy, which is its typical feature. Brandes, characterizing the works of Turgenev as a national writer, says that “there is a lot of feeling in Turgenev’s works and this feeling always responds with sorrow, a kind of deep sorrow; in its general character it is Slavic sorrow, quiet, sad, the very note that sounds in all Slavic songs.” To characterize this Slavic grief and explain its psychological nature, we can add that our national grief is alien to any pessimism and does not lead to despair or suicide; on the contrary, this is the grief about which Renan says that it “entails great consequences." And in fact, for a Russian person this feeling represents the purest and most natural way out of heavy internal tension, which otherwise could be expressed by some dangerous emotional disturbance, for example, anger, fear, discouragement, despair and similar affects. Among the misfortunes, in dangerous moments of life, among the Slavs there is not anger, not irritation, but most often sadness, combined with submission to fate and thoughtfulness in events. Thus, Slavic grief has the properties of a protective feeling, and this is where its high psychological significance for moral health lies: it protects the spiritual structure and ensures the inviolability of moral balance; being an inherited quality, Slavic grief became the main beneficial feature of the great national spirit.

All other aspects of feeling and, in general, the emotional side of the soul are well developed among the Slavs; in this respect, the Slavs are close to the Romance races.

The weakest side of the Slavic character is the will; it is much less energetic than that of other peoples, and in this respect the Slavs represent the opposite of the Germanic and Anglo-Saxon races. The will of the Slavs is expressed in impulses (Leroy-Beaulieu), as if it takes time to accumulate it. The Slavic genius is not alien to a clear consciousness of this feature and poetically depicted it in the epic about Ilya Muromets.

From the above characteristics it is clear that the Finn, with his strong will, strong in self-restraint (self-control) and equally strong in external manifestations, did not have enough intelligence to direct the will, and not become a blind fanatic of action. On the other hand, the Finn lacked a living feeling and subtle responsiveness to external impressions. The Slav has these qualities. The unification of two such dissimilar nationalities gave a race that was average in physical terms and complemented the spiritual image to the degree of integrity: the Russian, having absorbed the Finnish soul, received through it that tenacity and endurance, that stability and willpower that his Slavic ancestor lacked; and in turn, the Finn, under the influence of Slavic blood, acquired responsiveness, mobility and the gift of initiative. The moral qualities of the Finn and the Slav, having merged in one national organism, mutually complemented each other, and the result was an integral moral image, more perfect in the mental sense than the component parts from which it was formed.

The types of Little Russian and Great Russian differ from each other in the sense that the Little Russian has to a lesser extent those new features that were acquired from the Finns, and has more preserved the natural Slavic mind and feeling. Thus, the Little Russian turned out to be more ideal, the Great Russian more active, practical, and capable of implementation. A Little Russian, says Leroy-Beaulieu, is more mobile, more prone to reflection (developed mind), but less active (weaker will). His feelings are subtler and deeper; he is more poetic and prone to internal analysis.

The general character and main features of the Slavs and Russians are further complemented by an analysis of the spiritual nuances characteristic of individual Slavic tribes. The famous anthropologist-ethnographer Talko-Gryntsevich describes the Poles as follows, comparing them with the Great Russians, Belarusians and Little Russians. “The harsh northern nature,” says Talko-Gryntsevich, “...developed in the Great Russians a colder character, suitable to the climate, patience, endurance, firmness and energy. The Poles, on the contrary, having settled long ago in their plains, preserved better the character traits of their distant ancestors: a hot, dreamy, flammable temperament, a soft, cheerful and carefree character, little practicality in everyday life, inconstancy, deep attachment to their homeland.”

The above description shows that deep feeling is the main side of character, suppressing the mind and will. Such feelings, unmoderated by mind and will, are capable of single-handedly, undividedly dominating the soul and captivating it with their power. “The closest neighbors of the Poles - the Belarusians and Little Russians,” says Talko-Gryntsevich, “in their morals and national character, represent a kind of transitional stage from the Poles to the Great Russians, - a stage in which the extremes of the two characters are softened.”

The fourteen phototypes of Poles from various provinces cited by Talko-Gryntsevich fully confirm the characterization he made: each of the photographs captures, predominantly, a feeling. The extreme manifestation of the Slavic type in the Poles is explained, according to Talko-Gryntsevich, by the geographical position of the Poles in the center of the Slavs. With this, Talko-Gryntsevich tries to explain the peculiarities of Polish speech. Some anthropologists point to the possibility of anthropological mixing of Poles with other tribes, referring to the same geographical position of the Poles - on the high road of humanity, along which in prehistoric times a lot of peoples passed in both directions. Perhaps, in the emergence of the Polish tribe, a narrow crossing of purely Slavic elements played a role, leading the Slavic tribal extremes to their highest point due to those principles, the significance of which is indicated above.

This question remains not clear enough, but the recent emergence of the Poles on the path of world literature will probably clarify a lot about this original and talented tribe.

The foreigners of Russia, in all likelihood, play an unimportant role in the formation of shades of the Russian folk spirit, but on the outskirts, where they are anthropologically combined with Russians, influence is very possible in view of the well-known inclination of Russians towards peaceful unification with other peoples on the basis of anthropological and spiritual comradeship.

V. English

The British included (Brachi - brunettes) Celts (Scotland and Ireland) and (Dolicho-Brachi - blond) Germans with some admixture of Normans (also Germans). The English race, as a mixture of the named parts, is already completely united and formed anthropologically. In terms of height, this is the first race in the world; she also ranks first among civilized nations in body weight, breast development and physical strength. Psychologically, the British are significantly different from other peoples. Will, says Fouillet, constitutes the basic organic property of the English character, which exactly resembles the ancient Germanic race, distinguished by a strong, stubborn, tempered, sustained will; The Englishman is also characterized, as a result of a strong will, by enterprise and a love of initiative - the English owe this last quality to Norman blood. Thanks to his strong will, the Englishman is distinguished by restraint, seriousness and is capable of prolonged labor stress.

Thanks to his will, says Boothmey, the Englishman is a true instrument of labor: he is much more productive than the Irish and the German. The Englishwoman is no less strong-willed and active. But in terms of development and subtlety of feeling and tact, the English are undoubtedly inferior to the French. Mentally, the Englishman is persistent, but less capable of general ideas, which is why all his sciences, with a few exceptions, are more practical than purely scientific in nature. A significant part of English scientists are devoid of what could be called general development; they are, rather, pure specialists in selected branches of knowledge (Foulier).

The specific features of the English spirit were, regardless of the action of external nature, the fruit of the mixture of races inhabiting the British Isles. These races formed an independent language, the fruit of the most curious mixture, which gave unusually practical forms.

The main mental make-up of the British belongs to the Germanic root. The other constituent anthropological parts that make up the nation are subjected to more or less strong pressure, which has as its goal extermination. A pure Englishman is arrogant, silent and merciless in his activities, he does not have that spirit of benevolence and courtesy that is characteristic of a Frenchman, on the contrary, everywhere in his relations with people he mixes a contemptuous and defiant shade, and in his relations with conquered or dependent peoples the English bring the beginning of oppression, exploitation and extermination (Butmi).

The main feature of the English character is the predominant development of the will, as in the Frenchman - the predominant development of feelings and mind: the Frenchman is lively, talkative, subtle in his soul and responsive, the Englishman is silent and decisive. The Frenchman, in his attitudes and actions, is largely guided by public opinion and the conscience of others, and even in this he seeks support and reinforcement for himself; the Englishman is guided by his own conviction. Accustomed to looking for moral support in himself, and not in others, the Englishman is distinguished by directness, frankness, independence and civic courage. The following episode explains the idea. In 1864 John Stuart Mill stood as a candidate in the elections. One of his opponents, wanting to ruin his parliamentary career, asked him a sharp question in the presence of working-class voters: “Is it true,” he asked, that you spoke of English workers as if they were prone to lying? Mill did not hesitate to say, “Yes, it is true.” The French public in such a case, says Boutmi, would burst into a howl of protest; but the London workers covered Mill's answer with lively applause: they liked the moral courage with which Mill prepared to face their displeasure.

In his political views, the Englishman is distinguished by extreme particularism: he is attentive, liberal and humane only in relation to the English; but in foreign policy he is a completely different person. Legality, truthfulness, humanity and nobility in relation to the weak are recognized and respected only on the other side of the English Channel, and no further.

Despite the high and original development of England, she apparently did less for the upliftment and elevation of the human race than other countries did: Italy, France, Germany; but she showed the world an unprecedented example of freedom and activity. Such practical progress is no less important than mental progress.

The Germans

In addition to the Germanic tribe itself, Germany included Celtic, Slavic and Finnish elements; in Prussia there is a particularly significant admixture of Slavs, in Bavaria there is an admixture of Celts. According to Virchow’s observations, dolicho-blonds make up the bulk of the German people, and, nevertheless, individuals with this type in northern Germany range from 33–43%, in the center of Germany from 25–32%, and in the south no more than 18–24 %. Thus, the Germanic tribe (dolicho-blonds), who gave the German people their language and mental type, do not represent the majority. But the same thing, as we have seen, is observed in Russia, where up to 60% of the population is of the mixed type and where the population that gave its own language remains almost in the minority.

At the core of their soul, the Germans, like the English, have a strong will; hence their energy, perseverance, patience in enduring difficulties and loyalty to their accepted duty. The German's feeling bears the stamp of idealism; it is not immediately and not as quickly excited as among the Russians and French, but once excited it remains strong and long-lasting. In comparative psychological assessment, the mind always constituted among the Germans the side that was inferior to feeling, especially will. The German made special efforts to develop and develop this weakest side of his soul, just as the Russian made efforts to develop his will. The progress achieved by the race in this direction cannot but be considered remarkable, and the psychological experiment to which the German race subjected itself was not without significant consequences. The very technique of mental development was perfected by the Germans to such an extent that, in many respects, it served as a model for other nations. The Germans not only brought libraries and the book trade into exemplary order, but they were the first to manage to summarize world knowledge, create scientific centers, organize an army of scientists in which everyone, from the highest to the lowest, quietly but irresistibly moves forward in such an orderly echelon and with such an ideal scientific organization that, regardless of the era and the personal strengths of the workers, the advances of knowledge are fast, sure, non-stop and extensive. At first glance, German learning, German thought seem heavy, as if achieved through a painful siege, and, nevertheless, this path of the German mind turns out to be practical and leads to the truth, despite its apparent simplicity. The structure of universities, the organization of scientific centers, perseverance in the work of science, the consistency of knowledge, organization and cooperation have been brought by the Germans in the field of science to the height of true technology, thanks to which even a mediocre scientist not only achieves serious scientific improvement, but also enriches domestic and world science. In Germany, not only the government spheres and the educated classes are permeated with the consciousness of the importance of science, but even in the mind of the poorest and most stupid day laborer in life, the words “professor”, “scientist”, “doctor” are invested with an aura of such greatness that in other countries they cannot give science . Germany is the only nation in the world among which science has found a high position and appreciation. By creating a high position for science, the Germans showed themselves how important the cult of science is for the development of the national spirit. Other nations also believe in science, but nowhere has its appreciation penetrated so deeply into the masses as in Germany. The Germans have shown in practice that they view teaching as a force capable of carrying the entire people, united in a great intellectual army. The successes achieved by implementing such an idea turned out to be unusually fruitful for the Germans; their benefits are felt by humanity. This is the indisputable merit of the German race! Other, perhaps more talented peoples were not able to implement the technology of mental development to the same extent as the Germans. The consequences of the intellectual progress of the Germans turned out to be much more significant and serious than the Germans and other peoples could have expected. Scientific leadership has become such a universal and widespread need in all strata of the German people that, one might say, popular life has merged with scientific life, and the popular mind has been raised to the heights of science. This is one of the greatest experiences in the life of the human race!

e. French

The French, like the Germans, do not constitute an anthropologically homogeneous nation. The French people include: short (brunette) Celts, tall (dolicho-blond) Gauls and, finally, Germans. These constituent parts (like the constituent parts of the Germans) sufficiently merged and united ethnographically, forming a very typical collective organism of France. Just as in Germany the Germans left their spiritual imprint on the entire ethnographic group of the German people, so in France the Gauls and Celts did the same, passing on to the French people their cheerful, lively and active character.

The most cherished, outstanding side of the French character is a lively impressionability, already obvious to the observer from the first time. It stems from the strong feelings characteristic of this people, and was often the subject of criticism and ridicule from other peoples, to whom this trait might seem to depend on weakness of will and inability to self-control. But in reality, the feelings of the French are not only strong, but deep, in the true meaning of the word - and such feelings cannot be completely suppressed by the will. The Frenchman's feelings are distinguished by both depth and penetration: they clearly accompany all acts of the soul, and even the dry mind and pure will of the Frenchman are not free from noticeable emotion. That is why French thought is distinguished by its particular liveliness, picturesqueness and brilliance; in turn, the will, thanks to feeling, is full of flexibility and living adaptation and never has the character of a blind mechanical force; and even the very feelings are always accompanied by a whole range of secondary tones and shades, giving them the character of a wide, all-pervasive emotive act. The Frenchman does not even know that state of spontaneous numbness of feeling with petrification of will, which constitutes the national trait of the Finn and is called stubbornness. The French are also not characterized by cold cruelty, which is a national trait of some educated peoples.

The Frenchman's finely developed sense makes him perceptive about the state of mind of others and gives rise to an emotive response in himself; That is why the Frenchman is a social being to a greater extent than representatives of other European peoples. Already the Gauls, according to Strabo, willingly accepted the guilt of those who seemed to them to be unfairly accused. The French soldier, whose bravery has an age-old reputation, in the heat of battle never thinks of himself, but performs the duty of deep sympathy for his comrades who are in danger. Sympathy and compassion are a natural, deep feature of the French national character. It is easy to understand that with such qualities a Frenchman could not become a colonialist. France is considered even incapable of colonization. Colonization requires that coldness, violence, contempt, or at least inattention to the inferior race, of which the Frenchman by his very character is incapable. Just as the ancient Greek, producing works of art for the market, could not turn into a simple artisan, but remained an artist, so the Frenchman is not able to afford the inattention to man that is necessary to become a colonialist. The trait of universal humanity is so characteristic of the French character that even the very lyricism of this nation is imprinted with an unusual character. While German lyricism, says Meyer, bears the stamp of a solitary, self-contained state, French lyricism is characterized by expansiveness and publicity, and even when Lamartine and Hugo talk about themselves, they depict only those feelings that are common to everyone and which are not personal, but super-personal, universal in nature. This feature of the French character was sometimes explained by personal motives - the search for entertainment, the need for the exchange of thoughts, the thirst for society, etc., etc. But such explanations must be recognized as one-sided; on the contrary, the Frenchman feels himself less than he feels the other, and for him someone else’s gaze, someone else’s conscience, someone else’s soul has more power than his own instincts: omnium mihi conscientia major est, quam mea - this is what the Frenchman says about himself.

Pointing to the friendliness and public spirit of the French, D. S. Mill notes that the Englishman is deprived of these qualities: “In England,” he says, “everyone acts as if everyone were his enemies or everyone was angry with him.”

“A subtle understanding of others and assessment of oneself by the standard of social conscience made the highest virtues natural for the Frenchman: selflessness, altruism, the need to serve not only one’s own people, but all of humanity. In this respect, the French rightfully have moral primacy among modern races. Social reform and the democratic spirit are much more mature in the French nation than in other countries, and at the present time the minds of the best people of France, not without reason, begin to anticipate the dawn of a great turn in the course of moral life, which France will achieve earlier than anyone else in mankind. (Fulier).

The main property of the French mind is its sharpness and tirelessness. In this regard, the French occupy perhaps the first place among nations. Tradition ascribes to Virgil the words: they (the Gauls) can be brought to fatigue by anything but mental work. The clarity of thought and its logical structure are such that the French, not without reason, are called organizers of human thought. French criticism has acquired worldwide educational significance for the mind, just as French comedy has for social morals.

The will of the French is not always strong in external affairs, but, in general, this will must be recognized as strong, if we take into account the complexity of mental work and those countless complications that are given by a lively mind and ardent feelings and which inevitably require unusually complex and flexible manipulations will in tasks of decision and implementation.

Combining all the data concerning the French spirit, one cannot help but come to the conclusion about the special talent of the race; the significance of this talent is further enhanced by the harmony that exists between mental faculties. The very direction of the spiritual life of the French people bears the stamp of that comprehensive mental progress, which is reminiscent of the talents of the ancient Greeks.

The French genius is directed along the path that least of all promises immediate tangible results, but is the path of higher mental development. Humanity will someday appreciate both this path and the nation that has chosen and is paving such a path.

and. Jews

A psychological sketch of peoples would remain incomplete if some features from the psychology of a people were not given, which, although they do not constitute a nation in the full sense of the word (since they are scattered among other peoples of Europe and the globe), but the features of this people are so typical that familiarization with them is of significant theoretical interest and can contribute to the understanding of general issues of ethnic and racial psychology.

Jews fall into two separate groups, differing both in appearance and in their origin. Russian-German Jews (Ashkenazim), due to their small stature, the relative frequency of red hair, gray eyes and brachycephaly, are very distant from the Sephardim (Jews of the three southern peninsulas of Europe, the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea and partly Holland and England). Sephardic Jews are characterized by black hair, black eyes and dolichocephaly. According to the latest research, the unification of these two anthropological types into one common group of the Jewish people occurred an extremely long time ago, even on the site of the original homeland of the Jews in Western Asia, where the original true Semitic root was joined by the blonde-haired Amorites. The later admixtures (of Aryans in Europe) to these original parts of the Jewish people were relatively insignificant, which is why the Jewish people retain their primitive typicality.

At all times in their history, Jews have shown a tendency to migrate to a much greater extent than other peoples. The path to Europe, where the main mass of Jews moved from their original homeland - Western Asia, was threefold: through the Caucasus, along the shores of the Black Sea and along the Mediterranean coast. This last route was followed by the largest portion of the Jews before the period of their dispersion began. Currently, the total number of Jews on the globe is up to 10–12 million; half of this number lives in Russia.

The anthropological characteristics of the Jews, which sharply distinguish them from other peoples, include: shorter stature, poor breast development, higher birth rate, higher average life expectancy and lower mortality; Thanks to these characteristics, the Jews are gradually increasing in number, even despite the unfavorable conditions in which this race finds itself everywhere. One of the most noticeable features of the Jewish people is the highest adaptability of Jews to the most diverse climates, as discussed above.

The physical stability of the Jewish race corresponds to the stability of the main features of the mental structure: the way a Jew is depicted on the walls of ancient Egyptian tombs is how he appears in physical terms at the present time, and exactly the same thing is seen in spiritual terms. True, this general principle of anthropological stability is also applicable to other peoples: it takes many centuries to change the mental and physical type of peoples. These are the views of modern anthropology. In popular articles one can often find an explanation of the mental type of Jews by the events of their history over the last two millennia; but in the issues in question, such a period is too insignificant and cannot have any noticeable impact, with the exception of cases of large anthropological crossings, which did not take place for Jews. After these remarks we proceed to a brief sketch of the mental properties of the Jewish race.

Renan calls the Jews an intelligent, intelligent and passionate race. Everyone agrees with this quantitative assessment of talents. The mental talent of the Jews is beyond doubt and is reflected in the particular ease with which they are able to study speech, from literacy to the literary language, which Jews learn much more easily than other peoples. Jews have been everywhere, since ancient times, carriers of culture and mediators in mental exchange, and in tests of mental development at school, in our days, Jews often surpass non-Jews in the speed and glibness of scientific information (Leroy-Beaulieu and others). But this formal or external side of the mind is far from corresponding to the internal side. A convinced Christian Zionist, Professor F. Gehman, says significantly that the Jews could not be the creators of their own original culture, because they did not have their own soil, their own permanent refuge. But Renan thinks that it is not these external reasons, as Geman seems to think, but other, deeper conditions that underlie this peculiar phenomenon - undoubted talents and an equally undoubted inability to create a national culture. Renan says that the Jews, as a race, have no calling at all to philosophy, science, or art, with the exception of music. As if to confirm the very fact of this strange spiritual one-sidedness of a people who have a brilliant but narrow mind, they point to a deep historical mystery - that with the creation of the Bible, this greatest ethical-literary work, the productive productivity of Israel seems to be exhausted, after which a two-thousand-year pause follows , during which the Jews, as Gehman rightly noted, contributed their share of participation to all cultures and, nevertheless, not a single one was created or imbued with their spirit. It’s as if the Jews had dried up the spring of their own spiritual life, and they began to live with alien ideas, alien spirit and alien inspirations! The original national creativity of Israel seemed to have completely faded away, or at least it began to seek inspiration in the national ideals of those peoples with whom the Jews cohabit.

Regarding feelings, Renan called the Jews a passionate race, that is, gifted with living feelings. Khvolson (Semitic by origin) attributes to the Semites a sensitive, irritable, passionate soul. And, indeed, the feelings of Jews always seem bright and lively, at times even strong. However, for all the liveliness of their temperament, the Jews are not at all similar to the French, who also have lively and strong feelings, and this dissimilarity explains the essence of the matter. An objective determination of feelings is not an easy task, but we will dwell on some features that are equally valued by non-Jews and Jews. This parallel assessment was made by representatives of the first Zionist Congress on the one hand (Nordau, Birnbaum, etc.) and on the other hand by Geman in the above-mentioned brochure by him and others. Without going into a description of individual feelings, we will limit ourselves to assessing their general nature. The main imprint that distinguishes the feelings of the Jewish race could be called moral simplicism. The feeling of a Jew often appears in a simplified form, in its isolation and without complicating some feelings with others; so shame takes the form of humiliation, fear appears in the form of confusion, sadness - in the form of tears and expansive emotion, complacency - in the form of vanity, arrogance, arrogance and arrogance, self-confidence - in the form of conceit, etc. The essence of such shades and variations is replacing many feelings with one of the strongest or one of the most elementary. Let us explain with an example: a person who feels humiliated, despised - as Jews often feel - may not completely succumb to this feeling alone, if only he maintains a sense of moral dignity; similarly, a proud person will not fall into arrogance and arrogance if he maintains in his soul respect for someone else’s personality, etc. But if there is no such complication, if the emotive counterbalance is unusual for the soul, then everyone in general is a subject, regardless of his nationality, becomes a moral simplicist: his nature, instead of subtlety, acquires vulgarity, and all individual feelings radically change. The essence of moral simplicism is clarified by a psychological comparison of a Jew and a Frenchman in relation to feelings. The feelings of the French race bear the stamp of extraordinary complexity - it is always a soul resounding with its many fibers - which testifies to the high emotional progress of the race. Such a soul is far from characteristic of Jews as a race. Without a doubt, among Jews there are people with an unusually subtle all-human spiritual organization, but the living, passionate French soul cannot be placed on the same general level with the living, passionate Jewish soul. With the same strength of emotion, these two souls differ in terms of completeness and depth of feeling, just as the English and Russian souls differ in size and willpower.

The incomplete or insufficient differentiation of feelings in the Jewish race, already in distant times, made necessary the existence of a special moral corrective - in the person of the prophets, who are a remarkable specially Jewish institution. The etymology of the word prophet in the Russian and Greek languages indicates divination, prediction of the future, as the main function of the prophet, but the Semitic word nabi, applied to the name of the prophet, denotes a sighted person, i.e. morally seeing, perceptive, distinguishing and recognizing with his sense those moral subtleties and details that others do not discern. Thus, for the moral life of the race, a special institution of morally clairvoyant people was needed, capable of being leaders in matters of conscience, in matters of moral tact, which not only ordinary Jews often lacked, but also their spiritual representatives - high priests, priests, as we see from the writings of the prophets. According to Renan, the prophets represent a phenomenon that has no analogues in the history of other peoples. The prophets tried to awaken feelings, purify them, promote their development and growth; the prophets equally addressed the people and their kings and high priests, as messengers of God, as the voice of both an ideal conscience and a subtle feeling.

As for the will, the Jewish race is distinguished by outstanding persistence in work and tirelessness.

The main mental properties of the Jewish race: 1) a brilliant, sharp, but not deep mind, 2) a happy persistent will and 3) an undifferentiated feeling, we will put our specific stamp on the entire spiritual image, on the life activities and on the historical destinies of the chosen people.

The relative elementaryness or undifferentiation of feeling is most decisively expressed in the Jewish race by the absence of homesickness and a slight loss of native speech. This makes clear the tendency to migrate to distant countries and the symbiosis with alien races that has been characteristic of the Jewish people since remote moments in their history. Perhaps the desire of the Jews for dispersion and resettlement and the very aversion to settling down does not stem from the need for a piece of bread alone, but rather from the need to seek a spiritual life that bubbles up in a more complete way than the life of the Jewish race. Thus, the settlement of Jews across the face of the earth would be not only forced, but in part, probably, a natural psychological phenomenon, depending on the properties of the Jewish national spirit.

Scattering across the face of the earth and long life among alien races revealed some distinctive features of the national spirit of the Jews, especially the ease with which a Jew perceives an alien culture. Wandering across the earth, the Jews lost not only their historical territory, but also their language, literature, poetry, art and, to a certain extent, their very moral character - everything that is most valuable in life. Perhaps this is the only example for such a mentally developed race! The soul of modern Jewry is no longer warmed and aroused by an original national genius. The racial type, it is true, still remains, but this concerns the form rather than the content of the spirit with its historical continuity of ideas, aspirations and aspirations. Jews make their share of participation in the modern national cultures of different peoples, as Geman rightly says, but they are guided by the inspiration not of the Jews, but of a folk genius alien to them, from which they draw the content and forms of their creativity. Apparently, the main reason for this direction in the spiritual life of the chosen people is the preponderance of mental development over emotional development: subtle feeling, idealism, poetic and artistic emotions among the Jews gave up their rightful primacy to practicality to the detriment of the natural development of higher life.

Simplicism and incomplete development of feelings led the intellectually talented Jewish race to the monotony of mental aspiration, to a narrowing of the circle of actions, to confining itself within the framework of a few specialties and professions where the mind finds the desired food. But the most important thing that a person is motivated by a subtle feeling is precisely: the desire to develop purely spiritual interests - language, poetry, literature, arts, etc. remained in the Jewish race without proper prosperity. Thus, Jewry condemned itself to a narrow service role in humanity, lost the guiding ideological force of which its prophets spoke, and descended to the position of a simple executor of orders for the various nations among which it lives, whose ideas it is inspired by. In the final conclusion this has led the talented race to a narrower life than that required by the interests of the spirit, and in this is the great threat to the highest spiritual success of the Jewish race in the future.

As we tried to show in the essay on the national psychology of other races (Russians, Germans), each race with extraordinary persistence follows the path indicated by the tasks of its mental improvement, without stopping at any demands of life. Thus, the German race, in which feeling and will were happily developed, directed all the powers of their spirit towards achieving mental progress on a level with feeling and will. The Slavs, fortunately gifted mentally and emotionally, directed their aspirations to the development of will, and for this purpose even entered into an anthropological - blood union with the Finns and, in this way, recreated themselves into a new anthropological and spiritual type (Russians), possessing a more complete and an integral spiritual organization than that possessed by its constituent ancestral races (Slavic and Finnish). Jewry shies away from this path, it withdraws into itself, avoiding both anthropological assimilation and national propaganda, although the centuries-old experience of mankind shows races a different biological ideal. Time will tell whether Jews act better or worse than other peoples.

In contrast to many cultured peoples, the Jews show little inclination towards national unification; their cohesion, in its nature, rather resembles the fact of racial than cultural unity. Jews have little desire for territorial concentration, and are just as little inclined to create a national spirit with an original language, poetry, literature, and art. Given such inclinations of the Jewish race, life in dispersion is not at all a purely external or merely violent fact for it, but is deeply rooted in the very characteristics of this people. Broca sees in the Jews the properties of anthropological cosmopolitanism - both in their physical organization and in their physiological adaptability. But obviously, in the mental sense, Jewry is characterized by the same adaptability and the resulting moral cosmopolitanism: Jews willingly move from place to place, prompted by material and spiritual needs, and this desire arose in them not only from the time they lost their territory in Palestine, but it appeared much earlier. The very prospect of dispersion and symbiosis with the peoples of the globe was predicted to the Jews by their prophets; These men of genius, who could be called the Zionists of their time, deeply understood the national spirit of their compatriots and foresaw historical events whose causes were rooted mainly in the national spirit of the Jews. Events really happened as we read about them in the Jewish prophets. This confirms both the insight of the prophets and the accuracy of the psychological characteristics they made of their people. Although the prophets of Israel see God’s punishment in the dispersion, and modern Zionists are trying to create a nation out of Jews in the sense that it was created among other nations; but the question itself, it seems to us, is deeper. Jews, as a race, are hardly characterized by a national way of mental life; they have a much greater tendency towards anthropological universality than towards national frameworks; and, perhaps, it is precisely in this that the anthropological and cultural vocation of this, in any case, strong, stable, sharply marked in spiritual sense, race is hidden.

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