Cultural space of the Russian Empire in xviii. The crisis of the empire at the beginning of the twentieth century

After the Petrine reforms, the priority of secular principles was affirmed in Russian culture. Having essentially become part of the state apparatus, the Church lost its monopoly in determining the directions and forms of culture, although its influence in society continued to be significant. In the spiritual sphere of Russia in the XVIII century. the ideas of the Enlightenment began to penetrate, in which the central place was given to an enlightened monarch, capable of creating a harmonious society, where people in relations with each other should be guided by humane principles.

Enlightenment and science. In the middle of the XVIII century. the formation of secular education, begun under Peter I, continued. A network of closed class educational institutions was created, mainly for the nobility: the Shlyakhetsky (1731), Naval Cadet (1752) and Page (1759) corps, in which preparations were made for military and court service. In 1764, not far from St. Petersburg, in the village of Smolnaya, on the initiative of Catherine II, an institute for noble maidens was opened, which was the first educational institution for women. The most significant event in the field of education was the foundation in 1755 on the initiative of M. V. Lomonosov of Moscow University. An organizationally clear structure of public education is gradually taking shape in the country. In 1786, in accordance with the Charter of Public Schools, in each provincial town, main public schools with four-year education were established, in county towns - small public schools with two classes. For the first time, unified curricula and subject teaching were introduced. For the training of teachers in 1799, a teacher's seminary was formed at Moscow University.

The spread of education was closely connected with the development of science. M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) became an outstanding scientist-encyclopedist, the first Russian academician, who worked equally successfully both in the humanitarian and natural sciences. He wrote "Russian Grammar", works in the field of versification ("Letter on the rules of Russian poetry", "Rhetoric"), "Ancient Russian history". Scientific discoveries were made by M. V. Lomonosov in geology, mineralogy, chemistry, and physics. It was he who revived the art of mosaic lost during the Mongol invasion.

The rise of technical thought is associated with the names of the great Russian self-taught inventors - I. I. Polzunov and I. P. Kulibin.

II Polzunov (1728-1766) became the inventor of the universal steam engine. And he did it 20 years earlier than J. Watt.

IP Kulibin (1735-1818) for many years, until 1801, led the mechanical workshop of the Academy of Sciences, his creative thought covered various branches of technology. The famous clock with an automatic device in the shape of an egg has survived to our time. In 1776 I. II. Kulibin developed a project for a single-arch wooden bridge across the Neva with a span of 298 m. This project was not implemented. I. P. Kulibin worked on the creation of a searchlight, an elevator, prostheses for the disabled, etc.

As is often the case in Russia, most of the inventions were not used and were forgotten, and the inventors died in poverty.

Literature. Literature of the middle and second half of the 18th century. remained predominantly noble and was represented by the following three areas.

• 1. Classicism. The characteristic features of this trend were the pathos of national statehood and absolute monarchy. One of the leading representatives of Russian classicism was A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777) - the author of many poems, fables, comedies, tragedies. The main leitmotif of his work was the problem of civic duty.
• 2. Realism. Elements of this direction began to take shape only at the end of the 18th century. primarily in the work of D. I. Fonvizin (1745-1792), in his comedies "Foreman" and "Undergrowth".
• 3. Sentimentalism. Adherents of this trend declared in their works not the mind, but the feeling, to be the dominant of human nature. They were looking for the path to the ideal personality by releasing and improving feelings. In Russian literature, the story of N. M. Karamzin "Poor Lisa" became the most significant work of the sentimental genre.

Socio-political thought. Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818), a major publisher who published the satirical magazines Truten and Zhivopisets, was a representative of enlightenment thought in Russia. N. I. Novikov criticized the vices generated by the feudal-serf system, entered into polemics with Catherine II herself. As a member of the Masonic lodge, he secretly published Masonic books. In 1792, N. I. Novi-

kov was arrested, and his magazine and book business was ruined. However, his name remained forever in Russian culture.

The ideologist of the nobility, a supporter of the monarchy and the preservation of serfdom was Mikhail Mikhailovich Shcherbatov (1733-1790), a talented publicist and historian. He, however, criticized the activities of Catherine II, accused her of despotism and immorality. M. M. Shcherbatov’s pamphlet “On the Corruption of Morals in Russia” was first published only in 1858 by A. I. Herzen and used to undermine the authority of the autocracy.

A special place in the history of social and political thought is occupied by Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802), who, in his main work "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", not only criticized the country's feudal-serf system, but also spoke in favor of its liquidation by revolutionary means. Although his views did not meet with sympathy from his contemporaries, the ideas and figure of L. N. Radishchev were highly revered by many generations of domestic revolutionaries.

Architecture. Architecture of Russia in the XVIII century. received a new development. Until the middle of the century, the dominant position was occupied by the architectural style baroque (ital. lagosso - bizarre, strange), the characteristic features of which were the monumentality and splendor of buildings, achieved through curved and bizarre lines of the facade, an abundance of columns and moldings, oval and round windows. V. V. Rastrelli (1700-1754) was considered the leading Baroque master, according to whose projects the Smolny Monastery (1748-1762) and the Winter Palace (1754-1762) in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof (1747-1752), the Catherine Palace in the Tsar Sele (1752-1757).

In the second half of the XVIII century. to replace the Russian baroque comes classicism. He is characterized, first of all, by an interest in ancient architectural samples. Hence the absence of splendor in the decoration of buildings, simplicity, a straight line of the facade, a smooth surface of the walls, a clearly defined main building, and a strict symmetry of the layout. The founder of Russian classicism in architecture was V. I. Bazhenov (1737-1799). Samos is his famous creation - the Pashkov House on Mokhovaya in Moscow (the old building of the Russian State Library, the former named after V.I. Lenin), built in 1784-1786.

An associate of V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812), who created many buildings that are still preserved in excellent condition in the capital, worked in the architectural classical style. Among them are the building of the Senate (Public places) in the Kremlin (1776-1787); the old building of the Moscow University (1786-1793), burned down during the fire of 1812 and subsequently restored by D. Gilardi; Column Hall of the Noble Nobility Assembly (1780s); Golitsinskaya (now the 1st city clinical) hospital (1796-1801); the house-estate of the Demidovs (1779-1791), which now houses the Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography, etc.

The third largest architect of the second half of the XVIII century. was I. E. Starov (1745-1808), who worked mainly in St. Petersburg. built by him

Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (1778-1790) and the main architectural structure of his life - the Tauride Palace (1783-1789), the city estate of Prince G. Potemkin.

Sculpture. The general process of secularization of art in Russia gave impetus to the development of sculpture. The most famous sculptor was F. I. Shubin (1740-1805), who created a whole gallery of portraits of both historical figures (Yaroslav the Wise, Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily Shuisky and others) and his contemporaries (M. V. Lomonosov, P. V. Rumyantsev, Ekaterina I, Pavel I and others). Of the foreign sculptors who left a noticeable mark in Russia, the most significant was E. Falcone, the author of the monument to Peter I ("The Bronze Horseman"), which was opened in St. Petersburg in 1782.

Painting. Russian fine arts in the second half of the 18th century. entered a new stage of its development and was characterized not only by the improvement of portraiture, but also by the emergence of new genres: landscapes, everyday scenes, historical canvases. Nevertheless, this period is distinguished, first of all, by the flourishing of the portrait genre, which was due to numerous orders from the court: nobles, dignitaries and nobles who sought to capture themselves for posterity. The most famous portrait painters were A. P. Antropov (1716-1795), F. S. Rokotov (1736-1808), D. G. Levitsky (1735-1822), V. L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825).

Among the portrait painters, the serf of Count Sheremetev I. II stood out. Argunov (1729 1802), who painted not only ceremonial portraits of nobles and Empress Catherine I, but also created a strikingly expressive portrait of "Girl in a Kokoshnik".

The founder of Russian landscape painting is the son of a soldier of the Preobrazhensky Regiment S. F. Shchedrin (1745-1804), in whose canvases nature comes to the fore, determining the content and character of the image. His most famous landscape is "View of the Bolshaya Nevka and the Stroganovs' dacha" (1804).

Theatre. In Yaroslavl, through the efforts of the merchant F. G. Volkov (1729-1763), the first professional theater appeared, which in 1756 was invited to St. Petersburg. Here, by a special decree of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, a national theater was created, the repertoire of which consisted mainly of patriotic themes (the tragedies of A.P. Sumarokov and others).

At the same time, the richest Russian nobles organized theaters in their estates, where their serfs were actors. The most famous theater was at the Sheremetevs in Ostankino, which brought fame to the talented actress P. I. Kovaleva (Zhemchugova), who later became the wife of Count N. II. Sheremetev.

The decisive influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russian social thought, journalism and literature. Literature of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century. First magazines. Social ideas in the works of A.P. Sumarokov, G.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonvizin. N.I. Novikov, materials on the situation of serfs in his journals. A.N. Radishchev and his "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow".

Russian culture and culture of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century. The development of a new secular culture after the transformations of Peter I. Strengthening the relationship with the culture of the countries of foreign Europe. Freemasonry in Russia. The spread in Russia of the main styles and genres of European artistic culture (baroque, classicism, rococo, etc.). Contribution to the development of Russian culture of scientists, artists, craftsmen who arrived from abroad. Strengthening attention to the life and culture of the Russian people and the historical past of Russia by the end of the century.

Culture and life of Russian estates. Nobility: life and life of a noble estate. Clergy. Merchants. Peasantry.

Russian science in the 18th century. Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. The study of the country is the main task of Russian science. geographical expeditions. Second Kamchatka expedition. Exploration of Alaska and the West Coast of North America. Russian-American company. Research in the field of national history. The study of Russian literature and the development of the literary language. Russian Academy. E.R. Dashkova.

M.V. Lomonosov and his outstanding role in the development of Russian science and education.

Education in Russia in the XVIII century. Basic pedagogical ideas. Raising a "new breed" of people. Foundation of educational houses in St. Petersburg and Moscow, the Institute of "noble maidens" in the Smolny Monastery. Class educational institutions for youth from the nobility. Moscow University is the first Russian university.

Russian architecture of the XVIII century. Construction of St. Petersburg, the formation of its urban plan. The regular nature of the development of St. Petersburg and other cities. Baroque in the architecture of Moscow and St. Petersburg. The transition to classicism, the creation of architectural assemblies in the style of classicism in both capitals. IN AND. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov.

Fine art in Russia, its outstanding masters and works. Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. The flourishing of the ceremonial portrait genre in the middle of the 18th century. New trends in the fine arts at the end of the century.

The peoples of Russia in the XVIII century.

Management of the outskirts of the empire. Bashkir uprisings. Politics towards Islam. Development of New Russia, the Volga region and the Southern Urals. German settlers. Formation of the Pale of Settlement.

Russia under Paul I

The main principles of the domestic policy of Paul I. Strengthening absolutism through the rejection of the principles of "enlightened absolutism" and strengthening the bureaucratic and police character of the state and the personal power of the emperor. The personality of Paul I and its influence on the country's politics. Decrees on the succession to the throne, and on the "three-day corvee".

The policy of Paul I in relation to the nobility, the relationship with the nobility of the capital, measures in the field of foreign policy and the reasons for the palace coup on March 11, 1801.

Domestic policy. Restriction of noble privileges.

Regional component

Our region in the 18th century

Russian Empire in the XIX - early XX centuries.

Russia on the way to reforms (1801–1861)

Alexander's era: state liberalism

Projects of liberal reforms of Alexander I. External and internal factors. The secret committee and "young friends" of the emperor. Public administration reforms. MM. Speransky.

Patriotic War of 1812

The era of 1812. War between Russia and France 1805-1807 Tilsit world. War with Sweden in 1809 and the annexation of Finland. The war with Turkey and the Bucharest Peace of 1812 The Patriotic War of 1812 is the most important event in Russian and world history of the 19th century. Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union. The growing role of Russia after the victory over Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna.

Liberal and protective tendencies in domestic politics. Polish constitution of 1815. Military settlements. Noble opposition to autocracy. Secret organizations: Union of Salvation, Union of Welfare, Northern and Southern Societies. Decembrist uprising December 14, 1825

Nikolaev autocracy: state conservatism

Reformist and conservative tendencies in the policy of Nicholas I. Economic policy in conditions of political conservation. State regulation of public life: centralization of management, political police, codification of laws, censorship, guardianship of education. Peasant question. Reform of the state peasants P.D. Kiselyov 1837-1841. Official ideology: "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality." Formation of a professional bureaucracy. Progressive bureaucracy: at the origins of liberal reformism.

Empire Expansion: Russo-Iranian and Russo-Turkish Wars. Russia and Western Europe: Peculiarities of Mutual Perception. "Holy Union" Russia and revolutions in Europe. Eastern question. The collapse of the Vienna system in Europe. Crimean War. Heroic defense of Sevastopol. Peace of Paris 1856

serf society. Village and city

Class structure of Russian society. Fortress economy. Landowner and peasant, conflicts and cooperation. Industrial revolution and its features in Russia. Start of railway construction. Moscow and Petersburg: a dispute between two capitals. Cities as administrative, commercial and industrial centers. City government.

The cultural space of the empire in the first half of the 19th century.

National roots of domestic culture and Western influences. State policy in the field of culture. The main styles in artistic culture: romanticism, classicism, realism. Empire style as an empire. The cult of citizenship. The Golden Age of Russian Literature. Formation of the Russian musical school. Theater, painting, architecture. Development of science and technology. geographical expeditions. Discovery of Antarctica. Activities of the Russian Geographical Society. Schools and Universities. Folk culture. The culture of everyday life: finding comfort. Life in the city and in the estate. Russian culture as part of European culture.

Empire space: the ethno-cultural image of the country

The peoples of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. Diversity of cultures and religions of the Russian Empire. Orthodox Church and major confessions (Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism). The interaction of peoples. Features of administrative management on the outskirts of the empire. Kingdom of Poland. Polish uprising of 1830–1831 Accession of Georgia and Transcaucasia. Caucasian war. Shamil movement.

Formation of civil legal consciousness. The main currents of social thought

Western Enlightenment and the Educated Minority: The Crisis of the Traditional Worldview. "Golden Age" of noble culture. The idea of ​​service as the basis of noble identity. The evolution of noble opposition. Formation of a generation of enlightened people: from freedom for the few to freedom for all. The emergence of scientific and literary societies, secret political organizations. Spread of liberal ideas. The Decembrists are noble revolutionaries. Culture and ethics of the Decembrists.

Public life in the 1830s - 1850s The role of literature, press, universities in the formation of independent public opinion. Social thought: official ideology, Slavophiles and Westernizers, the birth of socialist thought. Formation of the theory of Russian socialism. A.I. Herzen. The influence of German philosophy and French socialism on Russian social thought. Russia and Europe as a central point of public debate.

Russia in the Era of Reforms

Transformations of Alexander II: social and legal modernization

Reforms of 1860-1870s - movement towards the rule of law and civil society. Peasant reform of 1861 and its consequences. Peasant community. Zemstvo and city reforms. The formation of public self-government. Judicial reform and development of legal consciousness. military reforms. Approval of the beginnings of all estates in the legal system of the country. constitutional question.

Multi-vector foreign policy of the empire. End of the Caucasian War. Annexation of Central Asia. Russia and the Balkans. Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 Russia in the Far East. Foundation of Khabarovsk.

"People's autocracy" of Alexander III

The ideology of the original development of Russia. state nationalism. Reforms and counter-reforms. The policy of conservative stabilization. Restriction of public activity. Local self-government and autocracy. Independence of the judiciary and administration. The rights of universities and the power of trustees. Press and censorship. Economic modernization through state intervention in the economy. The accelerated development of industry. financial policy. Conservation of agrarian relations.

Empire space. The main spheres and directions of foreign policy interests. Consolidation of the status of a great power. Development of the state territory.

reform society. Agriculture and industry

On the Threshold of a New Century: Dynamics and Contradictions of Development Economic growth. Industrial development. The new geography of the economy. Urbanization and the appearance of cities. Novonikolaevsk (Novosibirsk) is an example of a new transport and industrial center. Domestic and foreign capital, its role in the industrialization of the country. Russia is a world exporter of bread. agricultural question.

Demography, social stratification. Decomposition of class structures. Formation of new social strata. Bourgeoisie. Workers: social characteristics and the struggle for rights. middle urban strata. Types of rural land tenure and economy. landowners and peasants. The position of women in society. The Church in the Crisis of Imperial Ideology. The spread of secular ethics and culture.

Imperial center and regions. National politics, ethnic elites and national-cultural movements. Russia in the system of international relations. Politics in the Far East. Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 Defense of Port Arthur. Tsushima battle.

The first Russian revolution 1905-1907 The beginning of parliamentarism

Nicholas II and his entourage. Activities of V.K. Plehve as Minister of the Interior. opposition liberal movement. Liberation Union. Banquet Campaign.

Background of the First Russian Revolution. Forms of social protests. The struggle of professional revolutionaries with the state. political terrorism.

"Bloody Sunday" January 9, 1905 Performances of workers, peasants, middle urban strata, soldiers and sailors. "Bulygin Constitution". All-Russian October political strike. Manifesto October 17, 1905

Formation of a multi-party system. Political parties, mass movements and their leaders. Neo-populist parties and organizations (Socialist-Revolutionaries). Social Democracy: Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Liberal parties (Kadets, Octobrists). national parties. Right-wing monarchist parties in the struggle against the revolution. Councils and trade unions. December 1905 armed uprising in Moscow. Features of revolutionary speeches in 1906-1907.

Electoral law December 11, 1905 Election campaign for the First State Duma. Basic State Laws April 23, 1906 Activities of the I and II State Duma: results and lessons.

Society and power after the revolution

Lessons of the Revolution: Political Stabilization and Social Transformation. P.A. Stolypin: program of systemic reforms, scope and results. The incompleteness of transformations and the growth of social contradictions. III and IV State Duma. Ideological and political spectrum. Public and social uplift. National parties and factions in the State Duma.

Aggravation of the international situation. Block system and Russia's participation in it. Russia on the eve of a global catastrophe.

"Silver Age" of Russian culture

New phenomena in fiction and art. Worldview values ​​and lifestyle. Literature of the beginning of the XX century. Painting. "World of Art". Architecture. Sculpture. Drama theater: traditions and innovation. Music. "Russian Seasons" in Paris. The origin of Russian cinema.

The development of public education: an attempt to overcome the gap between an educated society and the people.

Discoveries of Russian scientists. Achievements of the Humanities. Formation of the Russian philosophical school. Russia's contribution at the beginning of the 20th century. into world culture.

Regional component

Our region in the 19th century

Ancient world history

What history studies. Historical chronology (counting the years "BC" and "AD"). Historical map. Sources of historical knowledge. Auxiliary historical sciences.

Primitiveness.Resettlement of the most ancient man. A reasonable person. Living conditions and occupations of primitive people. Ideas about the surrounding world, beliefs of primitive people. The most ancient farmers and pastoralists: labor activity, inventions. From the tribal community to the neighboring one. The emergence of crafts and trade. The emergence of ancient civilizations.

Ancient world: concept and chronology. Map of the Ancient World.

The Ancient East

Ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia. Living conditions and occupations of the population. City-states. Myths and legends. Writing. Ancient Babylon. Laws of Hammurabi. Neo-Babylonian kingdom: conquests, legendary monuments of the city of Babylon.

Ancient Egypt. Living conditions and occupations of the population. State administration (pharaoh, officials). Religious beliefs of the Egyptians. Priests. Pharaoh-reformer Akhenaten. Military campaigns. Slaves. knowledge of the ancient Egyptians. Writing. Temples and pyramids.

Eastern Mediterranean in antiquity. Phoenicia: natural conditions, occupations of the inhabitants. Development of crafts and trade. Phoenician alphabet. Palestine: resettlement of the Jews, the Kingdom of Israel. Population occupations. religious beliefs. Old Testament stories.

Assyria: the Assyrian conquests, the cultural treasures of Nineveh, the fall of the empire. Persian state: military campaigns, management of the empire.

Ancient India. Natural conditions, occupations of the population. ancient city-states. Social structure, varnas. Religious beliefs, legends and tales. The emergence of Buddhism. Cultural Heritage of Ancient India.

Ancient China. Living conditions and economic activity of the population. Creation of a unified state. Qin and Han empires. Life in the empire: rulers and subjects, the position of various groups of the population. Development of crafts and trade. Great Silk Road. Religious and philosophical teachings (Confucianism). Scientific knowledge and inventions. Temples. The great Wall of China.

Antique world: concept. Map of the ancient world.

Ancient Greece

The population of ancient Greece: living conditions and occupations. Ancient states in Crete. The states of Achaean Greece (Mycenae, Tiryns, etc.). Trojan War. Iliad and Odyssey. Beliefs of the ancient Greeks. Tales of gods and heroes.

Greek city-states: political system, aristocracy and demos. Development of agriculture and handicrafts. Great Greek colonization. Athens: the establishment of democracy. Laws of Solon, reforms of Cleisthenes. Sparta: the main groups of the population, the political structure. Spartan education. Organization of the military.

Classical Greece. Greco-Persian wars: causes, participants, major battles, heroes. Causes of the Greek victory. Athenian democracy under Pericles. Economic life in ancient Greek society. Slavery. Peloponnesian War. Rise of Macedonia.

Culture of Ancient Greece. Development of sciences. Greek philosophy. School and education. Literature. Architecture and sculpture. Life and leisure of the ancient Greeks. Theatre. sports; Olympic Games.

Hellenistic period. Macedonian conquests. Power of Alexander the Great and its collapse. Hellenistic states of the East. culture of the Hellenistic world.

Ancient Rome

Population of Ancient Italy: living conditions and occupations. Etruscans. Legends of the founding of Rome. Rome of the era of the kings. Roman Republic. Patricians and plebeians. Management and laws. Beliefs of the ancient Romans.

Roman conquest of Italy. Wars with Carthage; Hannibal. Roman army. Establishment of dominance of Rome in the Mediterranean. Reforms of the Gracchi. Slavery in Ancient Rome.

From republic to empire. Civil Wars in Rome. Gaius Julius Caesar. Establishment of imperial power; Octavian August. Roman Empire: territory, administration. The rise and spread of Christianity. Division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern parts. Rome and the barbarians. Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Culture of Ancient Rome. Roman literature, the golden age of poetry. Oratory; Cicero. Development of sciences. Architecture and sculpture. Pantheon. Life and leisure of the Romans.

Historical and cultural heritage of ancient civilizations.

History of the Middle Ages

Middle Ages: concept and chronological framework.

Early Middle Ages

Beginning of the Middle Ages. Great Migration of Nations. Formation of barbarian kingdoms.

The peoples of Europe in the early Middle Ages. Franks: resettlement, occupations, social structure. Laws of the Franks; "Salic Truth". Power of the Carolingians: stages of formation, kings and subjects. Charlemagne. The collapse of the Carolingian Empire. Formation of states in France, Germany, Italy. Holy Roman Empire. Britain and Ireland in the Early Middle Ages. Normans: social system, conquests. Early Slavic states. The formation of feudal relations in the countries of Europe. Christianization of Europe. Secular rulers and popes. Culture of the Early Middle Ages.

Byzantine Empire in the IV-XI centuries: territory, economy, management. Byzantine emperors; Justinian. Law codification. The power of the emperor and the church. Foreign policy of Byzantium: relations with neighbors, invasions of Slavs and Arabs. Byzantine culture.

Arabs in the VI-XI centuries: resettlement, occupations. The rise and spread of Islam. Arab conquests. Arab caliphate, its rise and fall. Arabic culture.

Mature Middle Ages

medieval European society. Agricultural production. feudal landownership. feudal hierarchy. Nobility and chivalry: social status, lifestyle.

Peasantry: feudal dependence, duties, living conditions. Peasant community.

Cities are centers of crafts, trade and culture. Urban estates. Shops and guilds. City government. The struggle of cities and seniors. Medieval City-Republics. The appearance of medieval cities. The life of the townspeople.

Church and clergy. Division of Christianity into Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Relations between secular authorities and the church. Crusades: goals, participants, results. Spiritual and knightly orders. Heresies: the causes of occurrence and spread. Persecution of heretics.

States of Europe in the XII-XV centuries. Strengthening of royal power in the countries of Western Europe. Estate-representative monarchy. Formation of centralized states in England, France. Hundred Years War; J. d'Arc. German states in the XII-XV centuries. Reconquista and the formation of centralized states in the Iberian Peninsula. Italian republics in the XII-XV centuries. Economic and social development of European countries. Exacerbation of social contradictions in the XIV century. (Jacquerie, Wat Tyler's rebellion). Hussite movement in the Czech Republic.

Byzantine Empire and Slavic states in the XII-XV centuries. The expansion of the Ottoman Turks and the fall of Byzantium.

Culture of medieval Europe. Representations of the medieval person about the world. The place of religion in the life of man and society. Education: schools and universities. The class character of culture. Medieval epic. Knightly Literature. Urban and peasant folklore. Romanesque and Gothic styles in artistic culture. Development of knowledge about nature and man. Humanism. Early Renaissance: artists and their creations.

Oriental countries in the Middle Ages. Ottoman Empire: the conquests of the Ottoman Turks, the management of the empire, the position of the conquered peoples. Mongolian state: the social structure of the Mongolian tribes, the conquests of Genghis Khan and his descendants, the management of subordinate territories. China: empires, rulers and subjects, the struggle against the conquerors. Japan in the Middle Ages. India: fragmentation of the Indian principalities, the invasion of Muslims, the Delhi Sultanate. Culture of the peoples of the East. Literature. Architecture. Traditional arts and crafts.

States of pre-Columbian America .Social order. Religious beliefs of the population. Culture.

Historical and cultural heritage of the Middle Ages.

History of the New Age

New time: concept and chronological framework.

Europe at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 17th century.

Great geographical discoveries: background, participants, results. Political, economic and cultural consequences of geographical discoveries. Old and New World. Economic and social development of European countries in the XVI - early XVII century. The emergence of manufactories. Development of commodity production. Expansion of the domestic and world market.

absolute monarchies. England, France, the Habsburg monarchy in the 16th - early 17th centuries: internal development and foreign policy. Formation of nation-states in Europe.

Beginning of the Reformation; M. Luther. Development of the Reformation and the Peasant War in Germany. Spread of Protestantism in Europe. The struggle of the Catholic Church against the reform movement. Religious Wars.

Dutch revolution: goals, participants, forms of struggle. The results and significance of the revolution.

International relations in early modern times. Military conflicts between European powers. Ottoman expansion. Thirty Years' War; Westphalian peace.

The decisive influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russian social thought, journalism and literature. Literature of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century. First magazines. Social ideas in the works of A.P. Sumarokov, G.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonvizin. N.I. Novikov, materials on the situation of serfs in his journals. A.N. Radishchev and his "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow".

Russian culture and culture of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century. The development of a new secular culture after the transformations of Peter I. Strengthening the relationship with the culture of the countries of foreign Europe. Freemasonry in Russia. The spread in Russia of the main styles and genres of European artistic culture (baroque, classicism, rococo, etc.). Contribution to the development of Russian culture of scientists, artists, craftsmen who arrived from abroad. Strengthening attention to the life and culture of the Russian people and the historical past of Russia by the end of the century.

Culture and life of Russian estates. Nobility: life and life of a noble estate. Clergy. Merchants. Peasantry.

Russian science in the 18th century. Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. The study of the country is the main task of Russian science. geographical expeditions. Second Kamchatka expedition. Exploration of Alaska and the West Coast of North America. Russian-American company. Research in the field of national history. The study of Russian literature and the development of the literary language. Russian Academy. E.R. Dashkova.

M.V. Lomonosov and his outstanding role in the development of Russian science and education.

Education in Russia in the XVIII century. Basic pedagogical ideas. Raising a "new breed" of people. Foundation of educational houses in St. Petersburg and Moscow, the Institute of "noble maidens" in the Smolny Monastery. Class educational institutions for youth from the nobility. Moscow University is the first Russian university.

Russian architecture of the XVIII century. Construction of St. Petersburg, the formation of its urban plan. The regular nature of the development of St. Petersburg and other cities. Baroque in the architecture of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Transition to classicism creation of architectural assemblies in the style of classicism in both capitals. IN AND. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov.

Fine art in Russia, its outstanding masters and works. Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. The flourishing of the ceremonial portrait genre in the middle of the 18th century. New trends in the fine arts at the end of the century.

The peoples of Russia in the XVIII century.

Management of the outskirts of the empire. Bashkir uprisings. Politics towards Islam. Development of New Russia, the Volga region and the Southern Urals. German settlers. Formation of the Pale of Settlement.

Russia under Paul I

Basic principles of the domestic policy of Paul I. Strengthening of absolutism through the rejection of the principles of "enlightened absolutism" and strengthening the bureaucratic and police nature of the state and the personal power of the emperor. The personality of Paul I and its influence on the country's politics. Decrees on the succession to the throne, and on the "three-day corvee".

The policy of Paul I in relation to the nobility, the relationship with the nobility of the capital, measures in the field of foreign policy and the reasons for the palace coup on March 11, 1801.

Domestic policy. Restriction of noble privileges.

Regional component

Our region in the 18th century

Russian Empire in the 19th - early 20th centuries.

Russia on the way to reforms (1801–1861)

Alexander's era: state liberalism

Projects of liberal reforms of Alexander I. External and internal factors. The secret committee and "young friends" of the emperor. Public administration reforms. MM. Speransky.

Patriotic War of 1812

The era of 1812. War between Russia and France 1805-1807 Tilsit world. War with Sweden in 1809 and the annexation of Finland. The war with Turkey and the Bucharest Peace of 1812 The Patriotic War of 1812 is the most important event in Russian and world history of the 19th century. Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union. The growing role of Russia after the victory over Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna.

Liberal and protective tendencies in domestic politics. Polish constitution of 1815 military settlements. Noble opposition to autocracy. Secret organizations: Union of Salvation, Union of Welfare, Northern and Southern Societies. Decembrist uprising December 14, 1825

During the reign of Elizabeth in 1756, Russia entered the Seven Years' War on the side of Austria and France against the dangerously strengthened Prussia. Russian troops captured East Prussia.

in 1759, together with the Austrians, they won a victory over Frederick II,

in 1760 they took Berlin, but after the death of Elise. in 1761, an admirer of Prussia, Peter III, left the war. Russia's successes have raised its prestige.

In 1768 Russia intervened in the unrest in Poland.

1768-1774 there was a Russian-Turkish war for influence in Poland and the southern Russian lands. Under the command of P. A. Rumyantsev, in 1770 he defeated the Turks on the Larga and Kagul rivers. In 1771, Russian troops occupied all the main centers of the Crimea. In 1773, troops under the command of Suvorov took the Tartukai fortress, and in 1774 they won a victory at Kozludzha. Turkey was forced to sign a peace treaty in the village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi, under which Russia received land between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug, Kerch and the right to sail Russian ships on the Black Sea. In 1783 Crimea was included in Russia.

In 1783, Russia annexed the Crimea and, at the request of Heraclius II, took under the protection of Eastern Georgia.

In 1787-1791. Turkey started a new war with Russia. Russia, together with Austria, again defeated Turkey (the successes of A. V. Suvorov at Focsani, Rymnik, the capture of Izmail, N. V. Repnin - at Machin, F. F. Ushakov at sea - at Tendra and Kaliakria). Russia secured the Northern Black Sea region.

In 1788-1790. Russia unsuccessfully fought with Sweden.

In 1772, 93, 95. together with Prussia and Austria, she carried out the partitions of Poland, receiving the Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania.

In 1780-1783. Russia supported the USA against England. In 1793 Russia severed relations with revolutionary France and prepared for war with her. In 1798 she joined the 2nd anti-French coalition. Ushakov's squadron made a trip to the Mediterranean Sea and captured the Ionian Islands. Suvorov carried out the Italian and Swiss campaigns. Considering Austria and England dishonest allies, Paul I withdrew from the war and concluded (after Napoleon I came to power) an alliance with France against England, prepared a campaign in India, but was soon killed.

Question number 23. Culture of the Russian Empire in the 18th century

The culture of Russia in the 18th century has a number of features: the pace of cultural development accelerated; the secular trend in art became the leading one; accumulated knowledge began to turn into science; connections between Russian culture and foreign culture began to bear a new character.

Enlightenment and science. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow, from the senior classes of which the Naval Academy was created in St. Petersburg in 1715. Following it, artillery, engineering, medical, mining and other schools were opened. Teaching the children of the nobility to read and write became obligatory. In 1714, 42 digital schools were opened in the provinces. There was a transition to Arabic numerals, the first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti, which appeared on January 2, 1703, also switched to a new font. In 1731, the gentry (noble) corps was opened. Other educational institutions were opened (Smolny Institute, Academy of Arts). In 1755, a university was opened in Moscow on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov.

An important result of the activities of Peter I was the creation of the Academy of Sciences (1725). Great cartographic work was carried out, geographical knowledge was developed (V. Bering, K. Krasheninnikov, S. Chelyuskin, D and X. Laptev, I. Kirillov).

The foundation of Russian historical science was laid (V. N. Tatishchev, M. V. Lomonosov, M. M. Shcherbatov).

In the field of exact sciences and technology, significant successes were achieved associated with the names of L. Euler, D. Bernoulli, I. Polzunov, I. Kulibin and others. M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) played an outstanding role in the development of domestic science ), who, with his encyclopedic knowledge and research, raised Russian science to a new level.

Literature. Since the second half of the 18th century, criticism of serfdom has been at the center of social and political thought (A. N. Radishchev, N. I. Novikov). Russian literature of the 18th century is represented by the names of M. V. Lomonosov, V. K. Trediakovsky, A. D. Kantemir, A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin, G. D. Derzhavin, I. A. Krylov, N. M. Karamzin and others.

Architecture. Architecture received a new development in the 18th century. In the first half of the century, the dominant style was baroque (from Italian - pretentious), the largest master of which was B. B. Rastrelli. In the second half of the 18th century, the baroque was replaced by classicism (I. E. Starov, V. I. Bazhenov, D. Quarenghi, A. F. Kokorinov, A. Rinaldi and others) - Sculpture develops (B. K. Rastrelli, F. I. Shubin, M. I. Kozlovsky, E. M. Falcone).

Painting. In painting, there is a transition to secular art. Outstanding portrait painters of the first half of the 18th century were A. Matveev and I. Nikitin, in the second half of the century F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, B. Borovikovsky and others created their works.

Theatre. In 1750, in Yaroslavl, on the initiative of the merchant F. G. Volkov, the first Russian professional theater was created. Various serf theaters were created, the most famous theater of Count N. P. Sheremetev.

The decisive influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russian social thought, journalism and literature. Literature of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century. First magazines. Social ideas in the works of A.P. Sumarokov, G.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonvizin. N.I. Novikov, materials on the situation of serfs in his journals. A.N. Radishchev and his "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow".

Russian culture and culture of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century. The development of a new secular culture after the transformations of Peter I. Strengthening the relationship with the culture of the countries of foreign Europe. Freemasonry in Russia. Distribution in Russia of the main styles and genres of European artistic culture (baroque, classicism, rococo, etc.). Contribution to the development of Russian culture of scientists, artists, craftsmen who arrived from abroad. Strengthening attention to the life and culture of the Russian people and the historical past of Russia by the end of the century.

Culture and life of Russian estates. Nobility: life and life of a noble estate. Clergy. Merchants. Peasantry.

Russian science in the 18th century. Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. The study of the country is the main task of Russian science. geographical expeditions. Second Kamchatka expedition. Exploration of Alaska and the West Coast of North America. Russian-American company. Research in the field of national history. The study of Russian literature and the development of the literary language. Russian Academy. E.R. Dashkova.

M.V. Lomonosov and his outstanding role in the development of Russian science and education.

Education in Russia in the XVIII century. Basic pedagogical ideas. Raising a "new breed" of people. Foundation of educational houses in St. Petersburg and Moscow, the Institute of "noble maidens" in the Smolny Monastery. Class educational institutions for youth from the nobility. Moscow University is the first Russian university.

Russian architecture of the XVIII century. Construction of St. Petersburg, the formation of its urban plan. The regular nature of the development of St. Petersburg and other cities. Baroque in the architecture of Moscow and St. Petersburg. The transition to classicism, the creation of architectural assemblies in the style of classicism in both capitals. V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov.

Fine art in Russia and its outstanding masters and works. Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. The flourishing of the ceremonial portrait genre in the middle of the 18th century. New trends in the fine arts at the end of the century.

The peoples of Russia in the XVIII century.

Management of the national outskirts. Bashkir uprisings. Politics towards Islam. Development of New Russia and the Volga region. German settlers. Formation of the Pale of Settlement.

Russia under Paul I

The main principles of the domestic policy of Paul I. Strengthening absolutism through the rejection of the principles of "enlightened absolutism" and strengthening the bureaucratic and police character of the state and the personal power of the emperor. The personality of Paul I and its influence on the country's politics. Decrees on the succession to the throne, and on the "three-day corvee".

The policy of Paul I in relation to the nobility, the relationship with the nobility of the capital, measures in the field of foreign policy and the reasons for the palace coup on March 11, 1801.

Domestic policy. Restriction of noble privileges.

Concepts and terms: Modernization.Reforms.Mercantilism.Guard.Empire. Senate. Colleges. Synod. Province. Fortress manufacture. recruiting kits. Revision. Prosecutor. Fiscal. Profitable. Assembly. Table of ranks. City Hall. Palace coup. Supreme Privy Council. "Conditions". "Bironovshchina". "Enlightened Absolutism". Secularization. Fixed commission. Guild. Baroque. Rococo. Classicism. Sentimentalism. Magistrate. Spiritual administrations (Muslim).

Persons:.

State and military figures: Anna Ioannovna, Anna Leopoldovna,

F.M. Apraksin, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, E.I. Biron, Ya.V. Bruce, A.P. Volynsky, V.V. Golitsyn, F.A. Golovin, P. Gordon, Catherine I, Catherine II, Elizaveta Petrovna, Ivan V, John VI Antonovich, M.I. Kutuzov, F.Ya. Lefort, I. Mazepa, A.D. Menshikov, B.K. Minikh, A.G. Orlov, A.I. Osterman, Pavel I, Peter I, Peter II, Peter III, G.A. Potemkin, P.A. Rumyantsev, Princess Sophia, A.V. Suvorov, F.F. Ushakov, P.P. Shafirov, B.P. Sheremetev,

Public and religious figures, workers of culture, science and education: Batyrsha (leader of the Bashkir uprising), G. Bayer, V.I. Bazhenov, V. Bering, V.L. Borovikovsky, D.S. Bortnyansky, F.G. Volkov, E.R. Dashkova, N.D. Demidov, G.R. Derzhavin, M.F. Kazakov, A.D. Cantemir, G. Quarenghi, I.P. Kulibin, D.G. Levitsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.K. Nartov, I.N. Nikitin, N.I. Novikov, I.I. Polzunov, F. Prokopovich, E.I. Pugachev, A.N. Radishchev, V.V. Rastrelli, F.S. Rokotov, N.P. Rumyantsev, A.P. Sumarokov, V.N. Tatishchev, V.K. Trediakovsky, D. Trezzini, D.I. Fonvizin, F.I. Shubin, I.I. Shuvalov, P.I. Shuvalov, M.M. Shcherbatov, S. Yulaev, S. Yavorsky.

Events/dates:

1682-1725 - reign of Peter I (until 1696 together with Ivan V) 1682-1689 - reign of Princess Sophia 1682, 1689, 1698 - uprisings of archers 1686 - Eternal peace with the Commonwealth 1686-1700 - war with the Ottoman Empire

1687 - foundation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow 1687, 1689 - Crimean campaigns

1689 - Treaty of Nerchinsk with China 1695, 1696 - Azov campaigns 1697-1698 - Great Embassy 1700-1721 - Northern War 1700 - defeat near Narva

1703, May 16 - the foundation of St. Petersburg 1705-1706 - the uprising in Astrakhan 1707-1708 - the uprising of Kondraty Bulavin 1708-1710 - the establishment of provinces 1708, September - the battle of the village of Lesnaya 1709, June 27 - the Battle of Poltava

1711 - establishment of the Senate; Prut campaign

1718-1721 - establishment of collegiums 1718-1724 - conducting a poll census and the first revision Grengam 1721 - Treaty of Nystadt

1721 - proclamation of Russia as an empire

1722 - introduction of the Table of Ranks

1722-1723 - Caspian (Persian) campaign

1725 - establishment of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg

1725-1727 - reign of Catherine I

1727-1730 - reign of Peter II

1730-1740 - the reign of Anna Ioannovna

1733-1735 - War of the Polish Succession

1736-1739 - Russian-Turkish war

1741-1743 - Russo-Swedish War

1740-1741 - the reign of John Antonovich

1741-1761 - the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna

1755 - foundation of Moscow University

1756-1763 - Seven Years' War

1761-1762 - the reign of Peter III

1762 - Manifesto on the liberty of the nobility

1762-1796 - reign of Catherine II

1769-1774 - Russian-Turkish war of 1770, June 26 - Battle of Chesma 1770, July 21 - battle of Cahul

1773-1775 - Emelyan Pugachev's uprising

1774 - Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace with the Ottoman Empire

1775 - the beginning of the provincial reform

1783 - annexation of Crimea to Russia

1785 - Letters of grant to the nobility and cities

1787-1791 - Russian-Turkish war 1788 - Decree on the establishment of the "Spiritual Assembly of the Mohammedan law" 1788-1790 - Russian-Swedish war 1790, December 11 - the capture of Ishmael

1791 - Treaty of Jassy with the Ottoman Empire 1772, 1793, 1795 - Partitions of the Commonwealth

1796-1801 - reign of Paul I

1799 - Italian and Swiss campaigns of the Russian army

Sources: General Regulations. Military Regulations. Maritime Regulations. Spiritual Regulations. Table of ranks. Decree on single inheritance of 1714. Peace of Nishtad . The act of presenting the title of emperor of all Russia and the name of the great and father of the fatherland to the sovereign Tsar Peter I. Decrees of Peter I. Camping magazines of Peter the Great. Revision tales. Relations and memories. « Youth is an honest mirror. The word of Feofan Prokopovich at the burial of Peter the Great. Newspaper "Vedomosti". Correspondence of Peter I. "History of the Svean war." Notes and memoirs of foreigners. "Conditions" of Anna Ioannovna. Ody M.V. Lomonosov. Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility. Memoirs of Catherine II. Correspondence of Catherine II with Voltaire. Order of Catherine II of the Legislative Commission. Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty. Decrees of Yemelyan Pugachev. Office of the provinces. Letters granted to the nobility and cities. Georgievsky treatise with Eastern Georgia. City position . Iasi peace treaty. Magazines "Painter » and "Stuff" . "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" A.N. Radishchev.

SECTION IV. RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN XIX - EARLY XX CENTURIES

The nineteenth century was a time of social, legal, intellectual, institutional, economic restructuring throughout the European continent. This is the time of the formation and establishment of an industrial society, the formation of a rule of law state and civil society, the formation of nations and national states, the rise and fall of European empires. In the 19th century, the main institutions of modern society were formed: democracy, civil society, social security and social equality, mass culture.

Russia was no exception in this movement. However, the specificity of its evolution was that these processes were superimposed by the conservation of the political regime of the autocracy and individual social institutions. At the same time, the Russian Empire acted as a full-fledged participant in international politics, and after the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Foreign Campaigns, Russia became one of the leading players in the international arena.

The most important milestone in the history of Russia in the 19th century was the Great Reforms, primarily the Peasant Reform of 1861. In the first half of the century, both for the authorities and for society, the archaism of the institution of serfdom was already obvious. And although the state tried to find ways to solve the peasant problem through palliative measures, it continued to carry out social and economic modernization within the framework of the feudal system. During the reign of Alexander I, attempts were made to reform the political system, a lot was done to humanize legislation, the mechanisms for managing the empire were reformed, and the Russian system of university education arose. However, liberal undertakings were combined with a social experiment in the creation of military settlements and an ambiguous policy in university education at the end of the reign.

During the reign of Nicholas I, the state tried to carry out economic modernization by authoritarian methods, which led to increased centralization of the administrative system, increased bureaucracy, and tightened state control over society. As a result, the mobilization of state resources allowed the autocracy to achieve obvious success in certain areas: the codification of laws, the professionalization of the bureaucracy and the officer corps, the development of university and vocational education, the reform of the state village, the construction of the St. Petersburg-Moscow railway. However, repeated attempts by Nicholas I to begin the abolition of serfdom were not successful. At the same time, the system of state guardianship held back public and private initiative, and the preservation of the archaic class system hampered the socio-economic and military-technical development of the country, led to its lagging behind direct competitors and, in particular, became the reason for the defeat in the Crimean War.

Painful failure in foreign policy led to the authorities realizing the need for large-scale reforms (the abolition of serfdom, zemstvo, urban, judicial, military reform, education reform).

Great Reforms 1860–1870 affected almost all spheres of Russian society. They contributed to the formation of new social strata, new sectors of the economy, and serious changes in the field of culture. The foreign policy course of Russia has also changed: its Central Asian and Far Eastern vector has become more clearly visible.

The great reforms led to radical changes in the economic structure of the country. Active railway construction, freedom of entrepreneurial initiative, wider opportunities for population migration contributed to the acceleration of industrialization and urbanization. Increasing state intervention in the economy towards the end of the century made these processes even more intense. The result of economic development in the second half of the 19th century was the rapid restoration of Russia's great power status after the unsuccessful Crimean War. However, the conservation of class orders in the agrarian sector, state support for inefficient landlord farms, the preservation of communal foundations among the peasantry, excessive burdening of peasant farms with mandatory payments in the face of land shortages led to a growing imbalance between the slow development of agriculture and the accelerated growth of industry and the financial sector.

The great reforms had a serious impact on the social practices of Russian society. The development of zemstvo and city self-government, the introduction of the institution of jurors and adversarial litigation, the weakening of censorship and, as a result, the growth in the amount of available information, the radical increase in opportunities for public and private initiatives in the economy, education, culture, and charity - all this led to a rapid expansion of the public sphere and, ultimately, to the formation of a civil society in Russia.

The overcoming of estates in many social and cultural areas, the consistent implementation of judicial reform, the further growth of education and professionalism of the bureaucracy, especially characteristic of legal and financial administration, contributed to the emergence of the beginnings of a modern legal state. However, the political system as a whole remained unshakable, and its authoritarian nature inevitably came into conflict with the rapidly changing social, economic and legal landscape of the country. Because of this, the government reforms of the era of Alexander II did not have the character of systemic reforms. This largely became the cause of the imbalance in the development of the country. The half-heartedness and inconsistency of the reforms, their belated nature by European standards, provoked radical circles of the public to develop alternative ways of Russia's development, which involved the "dismantling" of the historically established system of relations in a revolutionary way.

The tragic death of Alexander II led to an adjustment of the political course towards the restriction of liberal and all-estate principles. With these measures, the authorities tried to restrain excessive socio-political dynamism. Against the background of the all-European growth of nationalism, the Russian state turned to the search for original ways of modernization. This was also driven by the need

cultural unification of the empire in the context of the development of literacy, all-class military service, means of communication and communication. However, the conservation of the socio-political and legal system, with the growing dynamism of socio-economic development, ultimately led to even greater contradictions in the development of the country.

The problem of the relationship between society and power is a key issue in the history of Russia in the 19th century. It was a time of searching for forms of social self-organization. Then, in a relatively short period, the path was passed from secular salons and university circles to political unions and parties, which, claiming to actively participate in the activities of government institutions, came into inevitable conflict with the government. In essence, they raised the question of introducing a constitution and, accordingly, legally limiting the power of the monarch. Under the conditions of this confrontation, a unique phenomenon of the Russian intelligentsia developed, which largely determined the socio-cultural environment of the era and, by its very nature, opposed the authorities.

Acting as the initiator of reforms, the government was not a monopoly in the socio-political sphere, and the very fate of the reforms largely depended on its daily interaction with social forces. An example of such cooperation was the Stolypin reforms, which were carried out in the conditions of the constitutional experiment of 1906-1917. The very activity of the State Duma and the reformed State Council is a unique (though by no means successful) historical experience for Russia of everyday cooperation between people's representatives and government administration.

The main processes in the history of Russia during this period unfolded against the background of the socio-political struggle, the activity of mass and national movements, which aggravated during the period of national (and sometimes international) crises, which partly caused the revolutionary upheavals of 1917.

The 19th century was the time of the highest, world-renowned achievements of Russian culture and science. However, “culture” in this case should be understood not only as “high” culture (science, literature and art), but also the sphere of everyday life, as well as “mass culture”, the appearance of which in Russia (as in other countries) was one one of the most important aspects of the modernization process. A feature of the history of Russia in the XIX - early XX centuries. there was attention to the person, his daily practices, the culture of work and consumption, legal and political culture. It is necessary to highlight new trends in the culture of various social strata, residents of the city and the countryside, the center and various regions of the country.

In the national and confessional policy of the state, both confrontation and cooperation of national elites took place. The regions of the Russian Empire developed asynchronously, existed in various economic and legal dimensions, which posed an extremely difficult task for the imperial administration. The national policy of the autocracy changed throughout the 19th century under the influence of social, economic and cultural factors. If in the first half of the century the state traditionally pursued a policy of taking into account the uniqueness of individual regions and ethnic groups, a policy of cooperation with

national elites and their incorporation into the all-Russian elite, then in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries tendencies towards the linguistic and cultural unification of the empire prevailed.

Complex social, political and national problems of Russian life were solved in the context of an aggravated foreign policy situation. Russia, being a great European power, was involved in international conflicts and was forced to look for its place within the framework of the emerging bloc system, because of which a world war became inevitable.