I was looking for a coloring book, I found a very entertaining text

Y.G.Kol, Journey around the Great Water.1850
translation of Veshka

Watching a savage in front of a mirror is the most comical sight for a European. Vanity and self-admiration are visible in him, as in a Parisian coquette. He even surpasses her. While she changes the style of her hat and the color of her dress three or four times a year, the Indian changes the color of his face - because his attention is riveted to this part of his body - daily.
I have watched three or four young Indians here and have seen them every day with a new paint on their faces. They belonged to the aristocracy of their band and were obvious dandies. I saw them lounging around with great dignity and a very serious look, with green and yellow stripes on their noses and with pipes under their arms wrapped in wide blankets-cloaks. They were always together and apparently formed a clique.
Every day, when I had the opportunity, I sketched the coloring on their faces, and after a while I got a collection, the variety of which amazed me myself. The strange combinations that appear in the kaleidoscope can be called inexpressive in comparison with what the Indian's imagination produces on his forehead, nose and cheeks. I will try to give some description, as far as words will allow.
Two things struck me the most about their arrangement of flowers. The first thing they didn't care about was the natural division of the face into parts. And the second is an extraordinary mixture of grace and grotesque.
At times, however, they used the natural separation created by the nose, eyes, mouth, and so on. The eyes were outlined in regular colored circles. Yellow or white stripes were arranged harmoniously and at an equal distance from the mouth. A semicircle of green dots was applied to the cheeks, the center of which was the ear. Sometimes the forehead was also crossed by lines running parallel to its natural contours. It always looked somehow human, so to speak, because the basic forms of the face remained unchanged.
Usually, however, these regular patterns are not to the taste of the Indians. They love the contrast and often divide the face into two halves that are styled differently. One will be dark - say, black or blue - and the other will be quite light, yellow, bright red or white. One will be criss-crossed with thick streaks left by five fingers, while the other will be intricately painted with thin lines applied with a brush.
This separation is done in two different ways. The dividing line sometimes runs along the nose, and the right cheek and half plunge into darkness, while the left looks like a flower bed under the rays of the sun. At times, however, they draw a line across the nose, so that the eyes sparkle against the dark color, and everything under the nose is bright and shiny.
I have often asked if there was any significance to these various patterns, but I have always been assured that this is a matter of taste. They were just fancy arabesques, like their squaw embroidery on moccasins, belts, pouches, etc.
However, there is a certain symbolism in the use of colors. So, red usually represents joy and fun, black - sorrow. When someone sadly dies, they rub a handful of coal all over their face. If the deceased is only a distant relative, only a grating of black lines is applied to the face. They also have half-mourning, and paint only half of their faces black after a certain amount of time.
Red is not only their joy, but also their favorite color. Basically, they cover the face with a bright red color, on which other colors are applied. They use for this purpose vermilion from China, brought to them by Indian traders. However, this red is by no means mandatory. Often the color over which other colors are applied is bright yellow, for which yellow kroner is used, also purchased from merchants.
They are also very partial to Prussian blue and use this color not only to paint their faces, but also as a symbol of peace on their pipes and as a shade of the sky on their graves. A very curious fact, by the way, is that hardly any Indian distinguishes blue from green. I have seen the sky, which they depict on their graves in the form of a round arch, equally often of both colors. In the Sioux language, "Toya" means both green and blue, and a well-traveled Jesuit father told me that this confusion prevails among many tribes.
I was also told that different tribes have their own favorite color, and I am inclined to believe this, although I could not notice any such rule. In general, all Indians seem to take special care of their own copper complexion, and enhance it with vermilion when it does not seem red enough to them.
I discovered on my travels to the Sioux that there is a certain national style in face painting. The Sioux spoke of a poor Indian who had gone mad. And when I asked some of his compatriots who were present how his madness manifested itself, they said: "Oh, he dresses up in feathers and shells so ridiculously, and paints his face so comically, that one can die from it with laughter." It was said to me by people so adorned with feathers, shells, green, vermilion, Prussian blue and crown yellow that I could hardly help smiling. However, I concluded from this: there must be something common and typical in their motley style that can easily be violated.
In addition, a little later at the American State Fair, I was able to make a grand discovery from my drawings. They showed a giant Indian, and although his face was painted, I insisted that his coloring was fake. I, of course, got only a general impression, and could not show in which lines the error consisted, but I was sure of it. And it was definitely confirmed that it was a pseudo-Indian, none other than an Anglo-Saxon, clumsily dressed as a savage.

It is difficult to accurately convey the reverent horror with which educated Europe looked at the tribes of the Indians of North America.
“The battle cry of the Indians is presented to us as something so terrible that it is impossible to endure. It is called a sound that will make even the most courageous veteran lower his weapon and leave the ranks.
It will deafen his hearing, his soul will freeze from him. This battle cry will not allow him to hear the order and feel shame, and in general to retain any sensations other than the horror of death.
But it was not so much the war cry itself that frightened the blood in the veins, but what it foreshadowed. The Europeans who fought in North America sincerely felt that falling alive into the hands of monstrous painted savages meant a fate worse than death.
This led to torture, human sacrifice, cannibalism and scalping (all of which had ritual significance in Indian culture). This was especially helpful in stimulating their imagination.

The worst was probably being roasted alive. One of the British survivors of Monongahela in 1755 was tied to a tree and burned alive between two bonfires. The Indians at this time were dancing around.
When the moans of the agonizing man became too insistent, one of the warriors ran between two fires and cut off the unfortunate genitals, leaving him to bleed to death. Then the howling of the Indians ceased.

Rufus Putman, a private in the provincial troops of Massachusetts, on July 4, 1757, wrote the following in his diary. The soldier, captured by the Indians, "was found fried in the saddest way: the fingernails were torn out, his lips were cut off to the very chin from below and to the very nose from above, his jaw was exposed.
He was scalped, his chest was cut open, his heart was torn out, and his cartridge bag was put in his place. The left hand was pressed against the wound, the tomahawk was left in his guts, the dart pierced through him and remained in place, the little finger on the left hand and the small toe on the left foot were cut off.

In the same year, Father Roubaud, a Jesuit, met a group of Ottawa Indians who were leading several English prisoners with ropes around their necks through the forest. Shortly thereafter, Roubaud caught up with the fighting party and pitched his tent next to their tents.
He saw a large group of Indians sitting around a fire eating roasted meat on sticks as if it were lamb on a small spit. When he asked what kind of meat it was, the Ottawa Indians replied that it was a fried Englishman. They pointed to the cauldron in which the rest of the cut body was being boiled.
Nearby sat eight prisoners of war, frightened to death, who were forced to watch this bear feast. People were seized with indescribable horror, similar to that experienced by Odysseus in Homer's poem, when the monster Scylla dragged his comrades off the ship and threw them in front of his cave to devour at his leisure.
Roubaud, horrified, tried to protest. But the Ottawa Indians would not even listen to him. One young warrior rudely said to him:
- You have a French taste, I have an Indian. For me, this is good meat.
He then invited Roubaud to join their meal. It looks like the Indian was offended when the priest refused.

The Indians showed particular cruelty to those who fought with them by their own methods or almost mastered their hunting art. Therefore, irregular forest guard patrols were at particular risk.
In January 1757, Private Thomas Browne of Captain Thomas Spykman's unit of Rogers' Rangers, dressed in green military uniform, was wounded in a battle with Abenaki Indians on a snowy field.
He crawled out of the battlefield and met with two other wounded soldiers, one of them named Baker, the other was Captain Spykman himself.
Tormented by pain and horror because of everything that was happening, they thought (and it was a big foolishness) that they could safely build a fire.
The Abenaki Indians appeared almost instantly. Brown managed to crawl away from the fire and hide in the bushes, from which he watched the unfolding tragedy. The Abenaki began by stripping and scalping Spykman while he was still alive. They then left, taking Baker with them.

Brown said the following: “Seeing this terrible tragedy, I decided to crawl as far as possible into the forest and die there from my wounds. But since I was close to Captain Spykman, he saw me and begged, for heaven's sake, to give him a tomahawk so that he could kill himself!
I refused him and urged him to pray for mercy, since he could only live a few more minutes in this terrifying condition on the frozen ground covered with snow. He asked me to tell his wife, if I live to see the time when I return home, about his terrible death.
Soon after, Brown was captured by the Abenaki Indians, who returned to the place where they had scalped. They intended to put Spykman's head on a pole. Brown managed to survive captivity, Baker did not.
"The Indian women split the pine tree into small chips, like small skewers, and plunged them into his flesh. Then they laid down the fire. After that they proceeded to perform their ritual rite with spells and dances around it, I was ordered to do the same.
According to the law of preservation of life, I had to agree ... With a heavy heart, I portrayed fun. They cut his bonds and made him run back and forth. I heard the poor man plead for mercy. Due to unbearable pain and torment, he threw himself into the fire and disappeared.

But of all the Indian practices, scalping, which continued well into the nineteenth century, attracted the most horrified European attention.
Despite a number of absurd attempts by some benign revisionists to claim that scalping originated in Europe (perhaps among the Visigoths, Franks or Scythians), it is quite clear that it was practiced in North America long before the Europeans appeared there.
Scalps have played a significant role in North American culture, as they were used for three different purposes (and possibly all three): to "replace" the dead people of the tribe (remember how the Indians always worried about the heavy losses suffered in the war, therefore, about decrease in the number of people) to propitiate the spirits of the dead, as well as to mitigate the grief of widows and other relatives.

French veterans of the Seven Years' War in North America left many written memories of this terrible form of mutilation. Here is an excerpt from Pusho's notes:
“Immediately after the soldier fell, they ran up to him, kneeled on his shoulders, holding a lock of hair in one hand and a knife in the other. They began to separate the skin from the head and tear it off in one piece. They did this very quickly , and then, demonstrating the scalp, they made a cry, which they called the "cry of death."
Here is a valuable account of a French eyewitness, who is known only by his initials - J.K.B .: "The savage immediately grabbed his knife and quickly made cuts around the hair, starting from the top of the forehead and ending with the back of the head at neck level. Then he stood up foot on the shoulder of his victim, who was lying face down, and with both hands pulled the scalp by the hair, starting at the back of the head and moving forward ...
After the savage scalped, if he was not afraid that he would be persecuted, he would get up and begin to scrape off the blood and flesh left there.
Then he would make a circlet of green branches, pull his scalp over it like a tambourine, and wait for a while for it to dry in the sun. The skin was dyed red, the hair was tied into a knot.
Then the scalp was attached to a long pole and carried triumphantly on the shoulder to the village or to the place chosen for it. But as he approached every place in his path, he uttered as many cries as he had scalps, announcing his arrival and demonstrating his courage.
Sometimes there could be up to fifteen scalps on one pole. If there were too many of them for one pole, then the Indians decorated several poles with scalps.

Nothing can diminish the cruelty and barbarism of the North American Indians. But their actions must be seen both within the context of their warlike cultures and animistic religions, and within the larger picture of the general brutality of life in the eighteenth century.
Urban dwellers and intellectuals, who were awed by cannibalism, torture, human sacrifice, and scalping, enjoyed attending public executions. And under them (before the introduction of the guillotine), men and women sentenced to death died a painful death within half an hour.
The Europeans did not mind when "traitors" were subjected to the barbaric ritual of executions by hanging, drowning or quartering, as in 1745 the Jacobite rebels were executed after the rebellion.
They did not particularly protest when the heads of the executed were impaled in front of the cities as an ominous warning.
They tolerably endured hanging on chains, dragging sailors under the keel (usually a fatal punishment), as well as corporal punishment in the army - so cruel and severe that many soldiers died under the whip.

European soldiers in the eighteenth century were forced to obey military discipline with a whip. American native warriors fought for prestige, glory, or the common good of a clan or tribe.
Moreover, the wholesale looting, looting, and general violence that followed most successful sieges in European wars was beyond anything the Iroquois or Abenaki were capable of.
Before the holocausts of terror, like the sacking of Magdeburg in the Thirty Years' War, the atrocities at Fort William Henry pale. Also in 1759, in Quebec, Woolf was completely satisfied with the bombardment of the city with incendiary cannonballs, not worrying about the suffering that the innocent civilians of the city had to endure.
He left behind devastated areas, using scorched earth tactics. The war in North America was bloody, brutal and horrific. And it is naive to consider it as a struggle of civilization against barbarism.

In addition to what has been said, the specific question of scalping contains an answer. First of all, the Europeans (especially irregulars like Rogers' Rangers) responded to scalping and mutilation in their own way.
The fact that they were able to sink to barbarism was facilitated by a generous reward - 5 pounds sterling for one scalp. It was a tangible addition to the ranger's salary.
The spiral of atrocities and counter-atrocities soared dizzyingly after 1757. From the moment the fall of Louisbourg, the soldiers of the victorious Highlander Regiment cut off the heads of any Indians that got in their way.
One eyewitness reports: "We killed a huge number of Indians. The Rangers and soldiers of the Highlander Regiment did not give mercy to anyone. We scalped everywhere. But you cannot distinguish a scalp taken by the French from a scalp taken by the Indians."

The European scalping epidemic became so rampant that in June 1759 General Amherst had to issue an emergency order.
“All reconnaissance units, as well as all other units of the army under my command, despite all the opportunities presented, are forbidden to scalp women or children belonging to the enemy.
If possible, take them with you. If this is not possible, then they should be left in place without causing them any harm.
But what use could such a military directive be if everyone knew that the civilian authorities were offering a scalp bounty?
In May 1755, the governor of Massachusetts, William Sherl, appointed 40 pounds for the scalp of a male Indian and 20 pounds for the scalp of a woman. This seemed to be in keeping with the "code" of degenerate warriors.
But Pennsylvania Governor Robert Hunter Morris showed his genocidal tendencies by targeting the reproductive sex. In 1756 he set a reward of £30 for a man, but £50 for a woman.

In any case, the despicable practice of rewarding scalps backfired in the most disgusting way: the Indians went on a scam.
It all started with an obvious deception, when the American natives began to make "scalps" from horse skins. Then the practice of killing so-called friends and allies was introduced just to make money.
In a well-documented case that occurred in 1757, a group of Cherokee Indians killed people from a friendly Chickasawee tribe just for a reward.
Finally, as almost every military historian has pointed out, the Indians became experts at "multiplication" of scalps. For example, the same Cherokee, according to the general opinion, became such masters that they could make four scalps from each soldier they killed.

Sons of Manitou. A selection of portraits

Once upon a time, on the Abaya Ayala continent, very different peoples lived, fought, reconciled...
Does this name mean anything to you? But this is exactly what the indigenous inhabitants of present-day Central America called the continent long before the arrival of the expedition of Christopher Columbus on October 12, 1492 to its shores.

Feshin Nikolay:

One of the most common myths about the Indians is their red skin color. When we hear the word "red-skinned", we immediately imagine an Indian with a painted face and feathers in his hair. But in fact, when Europeans began to appear on the North American continent, they called the local natives "wild", "pagan" or simply "Indians". They never used the word "redskins". This myth was invented in the 18th century by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish scientist who divided people into: homo Europeans albescence (white European man), homo Europeans Americus rubescens (red American man), homo asiaticus fuscus (yellow Asian man), homo africanus niger (African black man). At the same time, Karl attributed the red complexion to the war paint of the Indians, and not to the natural color, but the people who had never met these very painted personalities in their lives, the Indians were forever called "redskins". The real skin color of the Indians is pale brown, so the Indians themselves began to call Europeans "pale-faced."

Indians are the indigenous people of North and South America. They got this name because of the historical mistake of Columbus, who was sure that he had sailed to India. Here are some of the most famous tribes:

Abenaki. This tribe lived in the United States and Canada. The Abenaki were not settled, which gave them an advantage in the war with the Iroquois. They could silently dissolve in the forest and suddenly attack the enemy. If before colonization there were about 80 thousand Indians in the tribe, then after the war with the Europeans there were less than one thousand of them left. Now their number reaches 12 thousand, and they live mainly in Quebec (Canada). More about them here

Comanche. One of the most warlike tribes of the southern plains, once numbering 20 thousand people. Their courage and courage in battles made the enemies treat them with respect. The Comanches were the first to use horses extensively, as well as supply them to other tribes. Men could take several women as wives, but if the wife was convicted of treason, she could be killed or her nose cut off. Today, there are about 8,000 Comanche left, and they live in Texas, New Mexico and Oklahoma.

Apaches. A nomadic tribe that settled in the Rio Grande and then moved south to Texas and Mexico. The main occupation was hunting the buffalo, which became the symbol of the tribe (totem). During the war with the Spaniards, they were almost completely exterminated. In 1743, the Apache chief made a truce with them by placing his ax in a hole. This is where the catchphrase came from: “bury the hatchet”. About 1,500 Apache descendants live in New Mexico today. About them here

Cherokee. Numerous tribe (50 thousand), inhabiting the slopes of the Appalachians. By the early 19th century, the Cherokee had become one of the most culturally advanced tribes in North America. In 1826 Chief Sequoyah created the Cherokee syllabary; free schools were opened, teachers in which were representatives of the tribe; and the richest of them owned plantations and black slaves

The Hurons are a tribe that numbered 40 thousand people in the 17th century and lived in Quebec and Ohio. They were the first to enter into trade relations with the Europeans, and thanks to their mediation, trade began to develop between the French and other tribes. Today, about 4 thousand Hurons live in Canada and the USA. Read more here

The Mohicans are once a powerful association of five tribes, numbering about 35 thousand people. But already at the beginning of the 17th century, as a result of bloody wars and epidemics, less than a thousand of them remained. They mostly merged into other tribes, but a small handful of descendants of the famous tribe live in Connecticut today.

Iroquois. This is the most famous and warlike tribe of North America. Thanks to their ability to learn languages, they successfully traded with Europeans. A distinctive feature of the Iroquois is their hook-nosed masks, which were designed to protect the owner and his family from disease.

This is a map of the settlement of Indian tribes, large and small. One large tribe may include several smaller ones. Then the Indians call it "alliance." For example, "the union of the five tribes", etc.

Another study on human settlement on the planet turned into a sensation: it turned out that the ancestral home of the Indians is Altai. Scientists talked about this a hundred years ago, but only now anthropologists from the University of Pennsylvania, together with colleagues from the Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, were able to provide evidence for this bold hypothesis. They took DNA samples from the Indians and compared them with the genetic material of the Altaians. Both have found a rare mutation in the Y chromosome, which is passed from father to son. Having determined the approximate rate of mutation, scientists realized that the genetic divergence of the peoples occurred 13-14 thousand years ago - by that time the ancestors of the Indians had to overcome the Bering Isthmus to settle in the territory of the modern USA and Canada. Now scientists have to find out what made them leave the place that was comfortable in terms of hunting and living and embark on a long and dangerous journey.

Alfred Rodriguez.

Kirby Sattler

Little Bear Hunkpapa Brave

Robert Griffing

Charles Frizzell

Pow Wow Singer

Cun-Ne-Wa-Bum, He Who Looks at the Stars.

Wah-pus, Rabbit. 1845

Elbridge Ayer Burbank - Chief Joseph (Nez Perce Indian)

Elbridge Ayer Burbank - Ho-Mo-Vi (Hopi Indian)

Karl Bodmer - Chief Mato-tope (Mandan Indian)

Gilbert Stuart Chief Thayendanega (Mohawk Indian)

Ma-tu, Pomo Medicine Man, painting by Grace Carpenter Hudson

Sitting Bear

These words were spoken by Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez at the opening ceremony of an aqueduct in one of the previously forgotten villages in the state of Zulia on October 12, on the occasion of a date that was formerly celebrated as the "Discovery of America" ​​and is now celebrated in Venezuela as Indian Resistance Day.

The Indian lived in close connection with nature, treating it with awe and deep reverence; he constantly turned in his prayers to the spirits and forces that embodied her, trying to propitiate and appease them. His connection with nature was both strong and fragile: on the one hand, it gave him the means to live, on the other hand, it constantly reminded and warned of what a vulnerable creature a person is and how much less and worse he is adapted to life in his surroundings. world than other living beings next to it. Therefore, it is not surprising that in art the Indian tried to express his deeply personal feelings and sensations related to the outside world - his fears, hopes and beliefs that lived in the very depths of his soul.

The art of the Indians was deeply connected with their religious beliefs. Unfortunately, due to the destruction of the traditional way of life and old religious beliefs and traditions, the ability to both express and understand the deepest inner meaning that was contained in the works of Indian art during its heyday was lost. This meaning is today inaccessible not only to white art historians, but also to most Indians themselves. Like the art of the white man, Indian art today is a pleasant addition to life, and light and superficial; a kind of graceful gesture and smile sent to life. It is no longer fed by that mighty and irresistible force and power, which was provided by a direct connection with the source of the whole gamut of human feelings and passions hidden in the depths of the human soul. Only in those few places, in particular in some places in the southwest and northwest, as well as in the Arctic regions, where the traditional way of life and cultural traditions have been largely preserved, examples of genuine Indian art can sometimes glimpse.

Another reason that Indian art as a whole remains misunderstood and underestimated is that its works are executed in an unusual style. Westerners would probably pay more attention to it and study it more seriously if it was either realism or abstractionism, since both of these styles are well known in the West. However, traditional Indian art is neither realistic nor abstract. It is schematic and symbolic, and in this it resembles the art of Ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian wall paintings were considered fun, unusual, and "amateurish" because the outer design looked very simple and naive. Ancient Egyptian sculpture has received more attention from critics and specialists because it has been classified as "realistic", although it is as imbued with symbolic and religious meaning as painting. Native American art has suffered from similar erroneous and simplistic assessments.

Indian art has never set itself the goal of objectively reflecting the outside world. He was not interested in the outer side of things; it was turned inward, it was primarily concerned with the echoes and manifestations of a person's inner life: visions, revelations, cherished dreams, feelings and sensations. This nourished the artist himself, and he wanted to see this in the object of his work. In Indian art, the aesthetic principle was not in the foreground, although among the Indians this feeling was very strongly developed. His main task was to convey and express some mysterious, mystical meaning. Even drawings and images on clothes and household utensils have a protective and healing purpose; express a connection with a sacred guardian spirit or serve as magical symbols that should ensure good luck and prosperity. The Indian artist, like his ancient Egyptian colleague, did not strive to paint an accurate portrait of a person or an image of an animal. He was not interested in the outer shell, but in the soul and hidden inner essence of everything that surrounded him. And how else can you convey and depict such a subtle and elusive thing as the soul, if not through symbols and other similar means of conveying your feelings and self-expression?

With the exception of monuments, the American Indians do not appear to have produced much art. We could make sure that the works of the ancient builders of rock settlements and maunds are not inferior to samples of both ancient and medieval European architecture. On the other hand, nothing has been discovered in North America - at least not yet - that can compare with the masterpieces of wall painting found at Altamira, Spain, or the equally famous examples of cave paintings at Lascaux, France. Only a few modest rock paintings have survived on the "house-settlements" erected in the rocks, but they were made by the Navajo Indians, who appeared here many years after the creators of these unique architectural structures left these places. Several drawings were also found on the walls of kivas, access to which was allowed. It is possible, of course, that a number of masterpieces of wall painting may be discovered inside the kivas, in a number of pueblos, when access to outsiders is opened there; after all, a number of monuments of painting and sculpture of ancient Egypt were also hidden from prying eyes for a long time. However, it is likely that any significant number of monuments of Indian art will never be discovered. The Indians simply did not have the inclination and desire to create them. An exception worth mentioning were the artists and wood carvers of the Pacific Northwest. They decorated the walls of the famous "longhouses" with real masterpieces, as well as the supporting pillars of residential buildings, pillars at burial sites, memorial pillars and famous totem poles (the expression "totem pole", although it is often used, is incorrect; the pillar depicted not only sacred symbols; it could simply be an emblem or a distinctive generic sign).

The only serious similarity between the art of the New and Old Worlds was the use of specific means of representation - pictographs, or petroglyphs. Petroglyphs are semantic signs or symbols that are drawn, hollowed out or carved on the surface of a rock, stone, in a rocky shelter or recess, as well as on the walls of caves. They are found throughout almost all of North America. Human figures, elongated and oblong, as well as feet, hands, legs and fingers are sometimes used as signs-symbols. More often there are geometric figures of various shapes (round, oval, square, triangular, trapezoidal) and their combinations, as well as amazing ensembles of peculiarly depicted animals, birds, reptiles and insects or their fragments. Sometimes the petroglyphs are depicted very closely, practically reduced to a kind of large spot, and sometimes the image is single, and in a remote and hard-to-reach place.

What did the petroglyphs mean? What were they drawn for? In some cases, they may have been applied just like that, "for nothing to do", without any specific purpose. Some "inscriptions" were probably left by lovers in order to express their feelings in this way. Perhaps they were left by hunters while they were waiting for prey, or making notes about the trophies they had obtained. Maybe it was a memento of the meeting of various tribes who had gathered to conclude a treaty. Many signs are most likely related to hunting: this may be a kind of "plot" or a talisman for a successful hunt. But a number of them, quite likely, are of a purely personal nature: young people who specially left to retire to a deserted place and receive revelation from a guardian spirit could leave a personal sign in order to express their feelings and impressions in this way. The author of this book often climbed a hill in a valley near Carrizoso, New Mexico. At its top, on stones of volcanic origin, you can see thousands of petroglyphs of various shapes, sizes, and representing the most diverse plot and semantic combinations. They were applied 500-1000 years ago by people of culture jornada, being a branch of culture mogollon, which, in turn, has a distant relationship with the Hohokam culture. Being there, you feel that you are in a sacred place and standing on sacred ground, and these signs are not random scribbles, but something very mysterious and important.

The fact that the North American Indian was not fascinated by monumental arts is largely due to the fact that he led a largely nomadic lifestyle. To an even greater extent, this may be due to his sacred fear and awe of nature, fear and unwillingness to cause any damage to the living world around him. Nature was sacred to him. Even when moving from one place to another, he tried to do it in such a way as to cause as little damage to nature as possible. He tried not to leave footprints, stepping on the ground, moving literally "on tiptoe"; not to break a single branch, not to pluck a single leaf; removed from the face of the earth all traces of fires and camp sites. He tried to move like a light wind. And as we have seen, he tried to make even his grave modest and inconspicuous. Some Indians for a long time refused to use the plow offered by the white man, although they were engaged in agriculture, because they feared that the iron plowshare, crashing into the body of mother earth, would hurt her.

However, although the Indian was practically unfamiliar with those types of art that are considered the most significant (although a miniature work of art can be just as skillfully executed and of the same value as a fresco), but in the creation of "home", everyday things, he achieved the highest level. Weapons, clothing, jewelry, items for religious rituals were examples of outstanding craftsmanship. At this level, the Indians of North America were unrivaled. In addition, unlike our society, among the Indians, artistic and creative abilities were not the lot of only a limited circle of people. The Indians did not consider these abilities to be some kind of exceptional gift. There is every reason to believe that as quickly these abilities fade and fade in our society, so widely they developed and spread among the Indians. Almost any Indian could make a jug or other patterned ceramic product, weave a basket, sew leather clothes, make horse harness or paint a pattern on a battle shield or teepee tent. Most Indians had "golden" hands and "live" fingers. This was taught to them by the conditions of life; and their constant contact and communication with the world of wildlife, deities and sacred spirits, revelations and visions, magical signs and symbols was an endless source of creative inspiration.

Again, we emphasize that those examples of Indian art that can be seen today in galleries and museums, in fact, do not represent genuine, traditional Indian art in the form in which it then existed. The Indians created masterpieces from short-lived materials: leather, wood, feathers, skins. Those samples that, despite their active exploitation and natural impact, have survived to this day, were rarely made earlier than the middle of the 19th century, that is, already in that era when the influence of the white man and his culture was quite tangible. Unfortunately, very few items from an earlier period have come down to us. As soon as the Europeans appeared on the continent, they immediately began to trade with the Indians, exchanging knives, hatchets, guns, glass beads, brass bells and bells, metal buttons, as well as brightly colored wool and cotton fabrics for furs and furs. We can say that from the middle of the XVIII century. the Indians had already fallen under the influence of the fashion and taste preferences of the white man. On the one hand, the range of clothing and jewelry among the Indians expanded, and on the other hand, their taste, traditionally fine and refined, coarsened in the course of contacts with an industrial civilization. A significant part of what consisted of those bright and magnificent outfits in which Indian leaders are depicted in photographs of the 19th century. and which we admire so much, was bought from the trading companies of white people or from white hawkers.

However, the use of mass-produced European materials was by no means always detrimental to Indian culture and art. Although they carried, on the one hand, external tinsel variegation and brightness, but, on the other hand, they made it possible for the Indians to fully express their rich imagination and realize their craving for bright and rich color palettes, since the paints were only of natural origin and the materials that they used before , did not have such a variety of colors as industrial ones, and sometimes they were dim and faded. Of course, the influence of Europeans was not only superficial. It seriously changed the tastes, fashion and style of clothing, and the very appearance of the Indians. Prior to contact with whites, Indian men did not wear jackets, shirts, or outerwear in general, and most Indian women did not wear blouses. Later, Indian women fell under the spell of the toilets of white military wives, whom they saw in forts and garrisons. They began to wear silk, satin and velvet items, adorn themselves with ribbons, and wear wide skirts and capes. Today's Navajos, whose clothing tourists consider "traditional Indian clothing", in fact, have very little resemblance to their compatriots who lived 200 years ago. Even the famous Navajo jewelry is generally modern, but by no means ancient. The Navajo Indians were taught how to make them by silversmiths from Mexico in the 1950s. XIX century. Indian life has changed completely since the Spaniards crossed the Rio Grande in 1540 and introduced the natives of North America to horses, firearms, and other outlandish and hitherto unknown things.

This, of course, did not mean that the Indians lost their traditional creative skills and abilities and stopped creating works of their own, Indian art. The Indians first saw whites four centuries ago, and their culture and the original creative skills and abilities that have constantly developed on its basis are at least 30 times older.

In all five main areas of distribution of cultures that we have identified on the North American continent, there is a great similarity in tools and all kinds of hand-made products, although the available raw materials for their manufacture in different areas were different. In the forest zone, wood was the main material; on the plains, hides and skins; the tribes of the ocean coast had an abundance of sea shells and material that they obtained from hunting sea animals. Despite the differences in raw materials mentioned, thanks to the spread of cultures - diffusion and trade - in all areas, even in those that were not immediate neighbors, we observe similarities in the tools and works of art created there.

The term "diffusion" archaeologists and anthropologists refer to the way in which material and spiritual culture spreads from one people to another. Material objects, as well as religious and cultural ideas, can be spread peacefully: through mixed marriages or through the establishment of allied relations between different tribes and communities. They can also spread as a result of war: when weapons, clothing and personal items are removed from the dead; and also when they take prisoners, that is, they begin to communicate with people of a different culture, customs and traditions. There is a mutual influence, and sometimes the culture and traditions of the captives can gradually have a very serious impact on those who captivated them. Another important source of the spread of cultures is population migration. For example, it was only due to the movement of large populations from Mexico to the north that the culturally Mexican ball courts that are characteristic of the southwest and the mounds that are so widespread in the southeast of North America were possible.

Even during the time of the ancient hunters in North America, there was a kindred interweaving of different cultures. This confirms the ubiquity of points, blades, scrapers and other stone tools belonging to various cultures: Clovis, Scotsbluff and Folsom. Trade was widespread among almost all tribes, and some specialized in it. The Moyawe traded between California and the southwestern regions, and in both directions. The Hopi were skilled brokers in the trade of salt and skins. They also successfully distributed the red ocher used for rubbing the body, including during religious ceremonies, which was mined by their neighbors, the Havasupai, in secluded and hidden from prying eyes crevices of the Grand Canyon.

It is likely that there was an active trade in short-lived materials, as well as food. It could be dried meat, cornmeal and various delicacies. For example, we know that people of the Hohokam culture exported salt and cotton. But of course, more information about trading operations is provided to us by discovered tools made of durable materials such as stone and metal. More than 10,000 years ago, flint from the mines at Elibates, Texas, was actively distributed to other areas, and flint from Flint Ridge, Ohio, was transported to the Atlantic coast and to Florida. Obsidian, both black and shiny, was in great demand. It was mined only in a few places in the southwest, and from there it was delivered to areas located thousands of kilometers from the place of extraction. We could already see the great demand for Catlinite mined in Minnesota, from which the "peace pipes" were made.

When a tribe became prosperous, and especially when it began to lead a settled way of life and build exquisite and expensive houses, it also had the opportunity to buy luxury items. The people of the Hopewell culture, one of the most colorful ancient Indian cultures, needed a huge amount of very expensive materials to support the ostentatiously luxurious and "spending" lifestyle that they led, not to mention the equally costly ceremonies at the funeral of the dead, including the construction of giant grave hills. From Alabama they brought jade; from the Appalachian Mountains - mica plates and quartz crystals; from Michigan and Ontario, pieces of wrought copper and wrought silver. In addition, the people of the Hopewell culture also imported one of the most sought-after goods on the continent at that time: sea shells.

The Cochise people of what is now Arizona imported sea shells from the Pacific coast 5,000 years ago. Their direct descendants - the people of the Hohokam culture - acquired from the fishermen of distant California a complete set of various shells: cardium, olivella and other varieties. The shells were especially attractive due to their unusual, original shape and color; they seemed to keep in themselves the mystery and boundlessness of the ocean depths. Hohokam artists used large clam shells to paint patterns on them; they were the first in the world to use the method of engraving by etching, and at least three centuries earlier than it was used in Europe. A layer of resin was applied to the raised parts of the shell, and acid, which was obtained from fermented saguaro juice, was applied to the open part.

In the rock "house-settlements" and in the pueblos of the southwest, rings, pendants and amulets are carved from shells, following the traditions of the people of the Hohokam culture, both in the past and now. Pueblo jewelers, especially the Zuni, adorn their jewelry with pearls, coral, and abalone; and during ceremonies and festivals, you can hear the sound of pipes made from the shells of a giant clam, which were taken from the depths of the ocean several centuries ago. The people who built mounds in the southeastern regions also played trumpets made from giant clam shells and drank their "black drink" from bowls, which were engraved shells. Engraved necklaces were made from the shells of the gastropod mollusk, which were worn on the chest by priests and tribal leaders.

Smaller shells such as columella, kauri, and marginella were used to make ornaments for capes, headdresses, belts, and anklets; in the north of the Plains, it became fashionable to use a jagged shell - a dentalium, not only as an ornament, but also as a means of payment. For a long time, this shell was used as money by the Hupa Indians and other tribes of central California, who acquired it on Vancouver Island, located far to the north.

Each shell had a clearly fixed value depending on the size.

The best-known example of the use of beads as both decoration and means of payment is the wampum, which was used by the Iroquois and Algonquian tribes.

The wampum consisted of numerous discs or tubes of shells in white, light brown, purple and lavender; they were all carefully crafted and polished and joined together in the form of a belt. They were used during important rituals; in particular, the wampum was passed around with the pipe of peace as a symbol of friendship and reconciliation. English and Dutch settlers very quickly got their bearings and put on stream the production and sale of wampums. The factory for their production worked in New Jersey until the First World War. Today the wampum is a staple Native American decoration; it is worn either alone or worn between rows of beads or turquoise, coral and other stones.

The Indians have been able to skillfully make beads from shells and stones since ancient times; the beads were carefully cut out of the shell, drilled, and polished. Making beads by hand was a very labor-intensive business, and the Indians were very impressed with European beads, made in an industrial way: both in quantity and in a rich variety of colors. As a result, the whole style of Indian clothing has changed. Columbus wrote in his logbook that when he first went ashore and offered purple glass beads to the Indians, "they seized them and immediately put them on around their necks." During the XVI-XVII centuries. white merchants - Spaniards, French, English and Russian - sold to the Indians many large and large glass beads of various types. Most of them were very skillful work of glassblowers from Spain, France, England, Holland, Sweden, Venice. The products were given such memorable names as "Padre", "Cornalin d'Aleppo", "Sun" and "Chevron". Today they are in the same demand among collectors as they were then among the Indians.

Due to the large size of the beads, the products were mainly used as necklaces. When smaller beads appeared in 1750 - "Pony Beads" (it was so named because white merchants carried bags with it on ponies) and "Grainy Beads" - the Indians began to sew it on clothes or make products with beads on a weaving machine. Soon, beading practically supplanted the decoration of products with porcupine quills or feathers. In the modern era, turquoise-coloured beads of the Hubble variety, made in the 1920s, enjoyed the greatest success in the southwest. 20th century in Czechoslovakia. It was sold to the Navajo Indians at a trade fair in Arizona and was such a success that the Indians traded it for pieces of real turquoise. Over time, in different places, their own styles of beading appeared, differing both in color and in pattern, which was either geometric shapes of various shapes and combinations, or a kind of natural landscape. Decorations were applied to clothes, curtains and household utensils using various methods: on the Plains and the plateaus adjacent to the northwest - with a lazy seam; in the northwest - speckled; the Iroquoian tribes used relief decoration and padding; net embroidery and openwork stitching were used in California and the southeast of the Great Basin; in the south of the prairies they made braided folds; The Chippewa, Winnebago, and other tribes of the Great Lakes region used a small loom for this purpose. Patterns of exceptional beauty and quality are still being made on Indian reservations in the states of Idaho, North Dakota, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Arizona.

Although decorations with porcupine quills and feathers have given way to beads, they are still in vogue among a number of tribes. Today, the eagle, hawk and other birds, the plumage of which was used in combat and other headdresses from hanging rows of feathers, are under the protection of the state. White traders began to use ostrich feathers painted in bright colors; and, if necessary, turkey feathers. At religious festivals and ceremonies in the pueblos of the Rio Grande, you will see many people in feathered hats, masks, in festive clothes with prayer wands in their hands. The porcupine has also now become a rare animal. Now, the exquisite designs and ornaments of its needles are no longer applied to clothing and household utensils in the northeastern states and northern Plains, where this animal was once found in abundance. The Iroquois, Huron, Ottawa, Chippewa, and Winnebago, as well as the Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne, specialized in such decorations. Porcupine quills, 12.5 cm long, were soaked in soapy water to become pliable and then applied to the material by bending, sewing or wrapping. Often decorations made of beads and porcupine quills were applied simultaneously: smooth polished quills well shaded the places covered with beads. In addition to beads and porcupine quills, hair was used for artistic decoration in weaving; it was also used in embroidery, weaving and knitting. As we noted in the first chapter, people of culture Anasazi they cut off the hair of the dead and used it for jewelry, as well as for weaving nets. In addition, horse hair and dog hair were often used, and in the Plains - elk and bison hair.

In the third chapter we talked about the methods of obtaining leather for making clothes and for other purposes; and earlier attention was drawn to the fact that bone, antler and horns of other animals were the main raw material for the production of things necessary for man since the time when the first ancient hunters mined meat, skins and tusks of mammoths and mastodons. We also talked about flake stone tools that the first hunters knew how to make long before the 20th century. BC e.

Metal tools were introduced to the North American Indians as late as their hunting counterparts in Europe. By this time, they were already being used in other areas that were a kind of "cultural centers" and sent cultural impulses around the world. The only exception was copper products. In North America, they knew how to work with copper as early as the spread of the cultures of the early copper age during the archaic period; the main "copper" centers were Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan. In those infinitely distant times - in the V-III centuries. BC e. - talented craftsmen from the Great Lakes region already made, perhaps the first in the world, copper arrowheads and spears, as well as knives and axes. Later Adena, Hopewell, and Mississippi cultures, especially those of the latter culture who professed a southern cult of the dead, made excellent copper ornaments in the form of plates and dishes, as well as pendants and applied ornaments. The famous ornate, ornate copper dishes that were arrogantly destroyed in the potlatch mentioned were made from sheets of hammered copper. However, despite these advances, the processing of copper was carried out in a primitive way. The melt was unknown; copper was mined from the purest ore veins, then flattened with a hammer, and when it reached a sufficiently soft and pliable state, sheets of the required shape were cut. A pattern was engraved directly on them using cutters made of stone or bone. Copper was processed in a cold way; sometimes, probably, it was heated over a fire before being hammered. The use of casting molds made of stone or clay was completely unknown. Other metals, such as atmospheric iron, lead and silver, were processed in the same cold way as copper, however, little work was made from these metals.

When the Europeans taught the Indians simpler and more reliable ways to produce silver, the passion for silver jewelry simply overwhelmed the entire Indian community. Europeans sold sheet silver to the Indians, or they themselves made sheets using silver bars and coins obtained from the Europeans in the course of trade. By 1800, the Iroquois tribes of the Lakes region, as well as the tribes of the Plains, were already making silver brooches, buttons, earrings, pendants, combs, buckles, necklaces, bracelets and anklets. At first, the products completely copied English, Canadian and American designs. Soon the Indians began to buy German silver, which was not really silver, but an alloy of zinc, nickel and copper. It was cheaper compared to pure silver, which allowed the Indians not only to increase the production of silver products, but also to make them according to their own original design - this concerned both the type of product and its artistic processing.

Silver products owe their popularity in the southwestern regions to the nomadic tribes of the Plains, who were the link between these regions and the settled northwest. Almost immediately, silversmiths from Mexico appeared here, who taught the Indians "sand casting" using tuff and pumice molds. The Mexicans also showcased their Spanish and Spanish Colonial style of silverware making. These styles were quickly and well adopted by the Navajo, who began to apply them brilliantly in their own original interpretation. Today, more than a century later, Navajo silver jewelry represents one of the finest achievements of modern American art; the traditions of the Navajo and their neighbors, the Zuni and Hopi, with whom they once shared the secrets of craftsmanship, are adequately developing the traditions of the Navajo.

famous belts concho and the typical Navajo bracelets are the work of Plains craftsmen; and the form of beads and buttons used by the Navajo, the silver ornaments for saddles and harnesses, and the "gourd necklace" resembling a wreath of blooming gourd flowers, are borrowed from the Spaniards. The necklace resembles in shape the clasp on the helmet of the Spanish cavalryman of the time of Cortes; he also had naya - a talisman-amulet in the shape of an inverted crescent, which the rider hung on the chest of the horse - his faithful fighting friend. For the Spaniards, a similar talisman was inspired by the coat of arms of the Moors during the capture of Spain by the Arab Caliphate; the coat of arms of the Moors was just in the shape of a crescent.

Usually, Navajo silver items were made from a single piece of metal and were quite large and massive, and if they were strewn with pieces of turquoise, they looked even more impressive. Zuni jewelry was modest and diminutive in comparison. They are mainly represented by delicately executed graceful images of birds, butterflies, insects and mythological creatures, skillfully composed of black amber, coral, garnet and small pieces of turquoise; each product is an amazing multi-colored mosaic that attracts and pleases the eye. The Zuni are also acknowledged masters of inlaying and applying miniature grooves and indentations to items. As for the Hopi, the products of their masters resemble those of the Zuni masters in miniature and grace; however, the Hopi rarely use colored stones, and their silver products are engraved, the motifs of which resemble patterns on ceramic products of the same tribe. The Hopi often use the "overlay" technique: two sheets of silver are soldered together, with the lower one blackened by the addition of sulfur; thus, a contrast is ensured in the product - the light and dark layers of silver mutually shade each other.

The Navajo, Zuni, and Hopi never had the opportunity to mine silver themselves - not even during the real "silver boom" in the southwestern regions. The point was not only and not so much in technical difficulties, but in the fact that the whites had long ago put their paw on all the bowels and mineral deposits. Initially, master Navajo jewelers used Mexican pesos and American dollars as raw materials, and when they were forbidden to do so, they began to buy bars and bars from dealers. Today, they buy both silver and turquoise from dealers, who in turn take them in Asia, the Middle East, and Mexico. Very often, turquoise in today's jewelry is a fake: in fact, it is not turquoise, but a "cocktail" of vitreous mass and colored glass. Now very little real turquoise is mined in the southwest, but its quality, alas, is not high; 12-15 main deposits of this region, where it used to be mined, are now depleted, but the quality of turquoise was remarkable, and it was immediately noticed by an experienced trained eye. Unfortunately, the vast majority of today's "Navajo jewelry" has nothing to do with the Indians at all, but is produced en masse in Japan and Taiwan, as well as by white businessmen in Albuquerque or Los Angeles.

The Indians themselves, of course, did not lower the quality of their products, much less descend to fakes; they were forced to watch how a pack of crooks and crooks shamelessly used the high demand for these products created by the efforts of the Navajo craftsmen, in fact depreciating the market for the Indians and discrediting the products themselves. Over the past centuries, this sad picture has become familiar to the Indians.

Basket weaving and pottery were some of the activities where the creative genius of the American Indian was perhaps most evident. It is this area of ​​Indian art, as well as weaving, which we will discuss a little later, that can serve as a measure of how refined, deep, and open towards beauty the soul of an Indian was. The white man did not use spear and arrowheads; feathers, sea shells, animal bones and horns, bison skins, tipis, tomahawks and totem poles meant little in his life. However, every day he has to use baskets, pottery and a variety of vessels and containers, as well as cover his bed with blankets. Therefore, he can compare these things of his daily use with those that surround the Indian. And if he is honest with himself, he will be forced to admit that the things that the Indian uses are not only no worse, but in many ways more convenient, and more useful, and outwardly more attractive.

In the field of basket weaving and pottery, the Indians had no equal; to a large extent this is still true today. It is interesting to note that basket weaving is considered more difficult than pottery making, and therefore seems to be "younger" in age. It is known, however, that at least 10,000 years ago in the arid regions of the west, where "desert cultures" were widespread, from Oregon to Arizona, ancient hunters were able to make wicker and ring-shaped baskets, as well as sandals and hunting traps and traps, using the same technique. At the same time, the first ceramic products appeared in America, according to the dating of the discovered archaeological finds, only around 2000 BC. e., that is, 6000 years later than the Indians mastered the art of weaving baskets.

Oddly enough, ceramics first appeared and became widespread not in the southwest, which was the leader of various kinds of cultural achievements and innovations in comparison with other areas and where agriculture had been known for 1000 years, but in the southeast of the forest zone, where agriculture was unknown. Ceramics appeared in the southwest only around 500–300 BC. BC e. But the creative creative impulse in both areas came from ancient Mexico, which throughout history had a higher level of culture compared to areas located to the north. Again, it must be borne in mind that at that time there was no border between Central and North America, there was no dividing line that prevented people from crossing the Rio Grande; they moved quietly, carrying with them their belongings, customs and traditions.

Eventually, the art of basket weaving reached a higher level in the southwest than in the southeast and in any other area. However, all the Indian tribes of North America were well versed in this art. They made baskets for storage, for carrying cargo, for cooking. Baskets were both small and huge; both round and square; with loops and handles. Basket-box, basket-sieve, basket for grinding, basket for washing corn and acorns, basket for beating seeds, basket-knapsack, basket-trap for birds and fish, basket-hat, mat, baby cradle and cradle, holiday baskets ceremonies, baskets for use during weddings and funerals - all this was masterfully made by the Indians. Food storage pits were covered with branches, twigs and narrow strips of bark; this prompted the idea of ​​weaving mats. The entrances to caves and houses were hung with mats and wicker curtains so that dust would not fly in and heat would not leave. They also wrapped the bodies of the dead. Baskets were woven so dense that food, seeds and water could be carried in them. In baskets they cooked food in boiling water, washed clothes, dyed clothes, and also boiled tisvin - Indian beer and other similar alcoholic beverages. A wide variety of material was used for weaving: in the southwest, in particular, reed, bear grass, willow and sumac were used; in the southeast - reed, oak, plant roots and bark; in the northeast, sweet grass, hardwood, cedar and linden; in the Plains, hazel and buffalo grass; in California and the northwest, spruce, cedar, cherry bark, and "Indian grass." Almost any natural material at hand could be steamed, dyed, and made sufficiently malleable and convenient for weaving.

The products themselves were as diverse as the materials from which they were made. There were three main ways of working with raw materials and making finished products: weaving, braiding, and coiling. Products differed by a remarkable variety both in a form, and on drawing. The images represented either geometric figures and their combinations, or were associated with a person or natural motifs. Finished items were often decorated with bells, feathers, shells, buckskin fringes, beads, porcupine quills, or other embellishments. The wild and rich fantasy of the Indian, his inexhaustibly deep and bright inner world, are fully reflected in those wonderful works of art, which were and are the wickerwork made by him. Until now, baskets of highly artistic quality are made by the inhabitants of the Pueblo, Apache and Navajo, and especially the Pima and Papago Indians living in Arizona. Such baskets are expensive because their manufacture requires a lot of effort and time. They are made for creative self-expression, as well as for museums and those tourists who have a high artistic taste and know how to appreciate beauty. If a Pima or Papago Indian needs some kind of container for personal use, it is easier for him today to buy a metal product in a store. Classical baskets date back to that era in the development of mankind, including the Indians, when they attached more importance to the purpose and quality of things than now.

In the western and southwestern regions, the technique of plexus and rings was common; in the east, products were “braided”. Various techniques were also used in the manufacture of ceramics. In the west and southwest, products were made by applying one ring-shaped layer of clay to another, and in the east and southeast, the clay was smoothed inside or outside the jug, which served as a form or template. The potter's wheel was unknown. Pottery has not been as ubiquitous as wickerwork; in many areas, including California and the northwest, it was not produced at all, but was used only by baskets and other wickerwork.

Pottery in the main areas of their distribution - in the southwest and east - were similar both in form and in general design. In terms of the types and forms of products, Native American ceramics were much more conservative compared to wickerwork. Originality was mainly distinguished by drawings and patterns on ceramic products, although people of the Hopewell, Mississippi and southern cults of the dead made products in the form of figures of people and animals; today this tradition is continued by the Pueblo Indians. The drawing was done in paint or engraved with bone and stone incisors; or it was stamped with fingers, cord, as well as wooden seals and matrices. A modest number of types and forms of products was fully compensated by juicy and multi-colored coloring: white, brown, red and yellow paints, together and separately, were applied with brushes, rag patches or tufts of fur. Paints were applied to the wet surface of the product before heat treatment on a diluted fire. A stable black shade was achieved by charring on a small, closed flame. After firing, products of the best quality were polished with a special device made of bone or stone or rubbed with a damp cloth to give them a satin sheen and brightness. In order for the finished product to be especially sparkling and sparkling, clay was sometimes mixed with colored sand or mica particles.

The best examples of today's Native American pottery are made in the southwest. It is thanks to the creative efforts of the Indians living here that over the past 50 years we have seen a revival and a real surge of interest in both ceramic products and other hand-made creations of Indian masters. Of course, pottery is not made in all pueblos of the southwest. In some places, the skills of this art have already been lost, in others the focus is on the more profitable production of jewelry, and somewhere simple items are made only for home use. The highest quality products are made in the pueblos of San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, San Juan, Acoma and Zia. It was in San Ildefonso that the outstanding ceramics masters Maria and Julio Martínez created their wonderful examples in 1919, in which a pattern made in matte black paint was applied to a polished black surface. Julio Martínez broke with the tradition that ceramics were only made by women.

Twelve years later, a resident of the same pueblo, Rosalie Aguiar, began to make famous products with inlaid patterns. Of the other tribes of the southwest who have preserved traditions of pottery production, it is worth noting the Hopi, who produce, albeit in a limited amount, jugs of amazing quality, and the Maricopa, who make wonderful vases and magnificent blood-red jugs with a high neck.

In 1900, a brilliant Indian woman named Nampeyo began to make pottery in the spirit of the ancient traditions of the Hopi Indians. However, the Hopi today are known for more than just their pottery and silver jewelry; they are primarily famous for dolls - "kachins". The art of carving these figurines 7.5 to 45 cm high from a piece of cottonwood is not ancient; they have been owned for less than a hundred years. These dolls were made to help children remember the 250 male and female deities that the kachinas represent. But if the figurines themselves are not ancient, then the sacred spirits depicted by them, who live in the mountains in northern Arizona and come to the Hopi villages every winter, certainly are. One of these villages, Oraibi, located on the heights of Hopi Sord Mesa, is probably the oldest permanently inhabited place in the United States.

“Kachinas” were made as follows: a layer of white kaolin was applied on the base, on top - a brightly colored pattern and multi-colored feather decorations. The arms, legs, head, headdress of the doll, as well as the objects with which she was depicted, were made separately and then carefully glued to the base. These original figurines are a fine example of miniature art. Since these are not cult items, but ordinary images, it is not considered unethical to buy them. And visitors are happy to acquire these charming little masterpieces depicting a deity or an Indian disguised as one, performing a ritual dance during a religious holiday.

Hopi Indians now number less than 6,000; The finest Pueblo Indian art is produced by craftsmen from half a dozen settlements with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants. The largest Indian tribe in the southwest is the Navajo, with a population of about 80,000. They are tolerable "basketmakers", indifferent to ceramics and, of course, outstanding masters in the production of man-made silverware. However, it should be noted in particular the area in which they have demonstrated a truly inimitable style of their own and original style over the past few centuries: weaving.

Weaving has been known in North America since ancient times. The people of the Adena and Hopewell cultures made things from textiles 2000 years ago, and after a short time this art spread to California and the Great Plains region. Products at that time were made by hand, without a loom. Of the techniques used, one can name knitting, embroidery with a tambour, loop, mesh, folds, twisting and other needlework methods. The undisputed leaders in this area were the Indians of the Pacific Northwest, especially the Chilkats, who lived in the far north, on the border between Alaska and Canada. The Chilkat, an offshoot of the Tlingit, made dress shirts, as well as blankets, bedspreads and the famous cape, using a mixture of pieces of cedar bark and mountain goat hair, dyed white, yellow, blue and black. These products are in great demand among collectors and collectors of samples of artistic folk art. Like the Salish in northern California, who made woolen blankets and bedspreads of very high quality, the Chilkat began to use a rudimentary weaving frame, which was worked by hand.

The real loom came into use only in the southwest. Here the Hopi achieved great success in weaving; it also gained some distribution among the Pueblo Indians. But it was the Navajos who brought technological progress in this area: starting with a simple belt loom, in which one end was attached to the weaver's belt, and the other was fixed around a tree or one of the supporting pillars of the dwelling, they improved it to a complex vertical loom. It is possible that the American Southwest was the place of its invention. Initially, vegetable fibers and animal hair were used as raw materials; then they began to use cotton thread, and from 1600 onwards - sheep's wool, which became available after the Spanish settlers who came to New Mexico brought flocks of sheep with them. Today, the chief weavers in the area are the Navajo, who learned the art from the puebloans in 1700. They make blankets and bedspreads in bold designs and colors at a number of locations throughout the vast Navajo Reservation. Among the places famous for their craftsmen are Chinle, Nazlini, Klageto, Ti-No-Po, Lukachukai, Ganado, Wide Ruins and two dozen others.

The art of weaving is practiced by Navajo women. But the art of sand drawings is already the prerogative of men. The execution of such drawings belonged to the competence of the shaman, since they had not only a religious, but also a healing purpose. The patient sat down on the ground, and while reading prayers and singing chants, the shaman began to draw a picture around him in the sand. As the drawing progressed, the disease was supposed to go into it, and the deities depicted in the drawing were supposed to reveal their miraculous powers. Then, at sunset, the drawing was wiped off the face of the earth, and the disease was supposed to disappear with it. Drawing in the sand was common among the Navajos, Papagos, Apaches, and Puebloans; although it must be said that the term "sand drawing" or "drawing in the sand" is inaccurate and misleading. Only the base on which the drawing is applied consists of sand; the drawing itself is applied not with colored paints, but with colored materials crushed into powder: plants, charcoal and pollen, which skillfully pour out in a thin stream between the fingers on the sand. To perform such a drawing, accuracy, patience and endurance and exceptional memory were required, since it was necessary to accurately reproduce the traditional drawing provided for by the ritual in the sand, and only from memory.

In painting, as in jewelry, basketry, and pottery, the southwest region has been at the forefront of the Native American Renaissance that has been seen in recent times. His leadership is partly due to the fact that the inhabitants of this area avoided the destruction of their way of life and culture, which the tribes of the East and West coasts faced, as well as the complete eviction and expulsion from their native lands, which the Indians of the Plains and the southeast experienced. The Indians of the southwest have gone through humiliation and poverty and periods of bitter exile and exile; but in general they managed to stay on the lands of their ancestors and were able to maintain a certain continuity of lifestyle and culture.

In general, in the United States there are a lot of artists of various schools and trends; but it is such a large country that there is very little connection between the various cultural centers; the existence and fruitful activities of exceptionally gifted and talented artists may not be known in the far-flung New York and Los Angeles. These two cities are not the same cultural centers as London, Paris and Rome are in their countries. For this reason, the existence of a unique school of Indian artists in the southwest, if not ignored, did not play a role comparable to the talents that it represents. In a smaller country, such an original direction would certainly receive immediate and long-term recognition. For half a century, Native American artists of the Southwest have been creating wonderful works of vibrant originality. Interest in them, as well as in Indian literature, gives hope for the growing role of Indian art in all American culture.

Shortly after the end of World War I, a small group of white artists, scientists, and residents of and around Santa Fe created a movement that became known as the Santa Fe Movement. They set themselves the task of acquainting the world with the powerful creative potential that the Indians possessed. As a result of their efforts, the Academy of Indian Fine Arts was established in 1923. She helped the artists in every possible way, organized exhibitions, and eventually Santa Fe became one of the most important centers of fine arts in the United States, and equally important for both Indian and white artists.

Surprisingly, the cradle of modern Indian art was San Ildefonso, a small pueblo settlement where the star of the famous ceramics masters Julio and Maria Martinez rose at that time. Even today, San Ildefonso is one of the smallest pueblos; its population is only 300 people. Even more surprising is the fact that the founder of the movement for the revival of Indian art is Crescencio Martinez, the cousin of Maria Martinez. Crescencio (Moose Abode) was one of the young Native American artists who at the beginning of the 20th century. experimented with water-based paints following the example of white painters. In 1910, he was already working very fruitfully and attracted the attention of the organizers of the Santa Fe movement. Unfortunately, he died untimely from the Spanish flu during an epidemic; this happened in 1918, when he was only 18 years old. But his initiative was continued; soon there were already 20 young artists working in San Ildefonso; together with talented potters, they worked fruitfully in this little Athens on the banks of the Rio Grande.

Their creative impulse penetrated the surrounding pueblos and eventually reached the Apaches and Navajos, drawing them into this "creative fever." In San Ildefonso itself, another famous artist appeared - it was Crescenzio's nephew named Ava Tsire (Alfonso Roybal); he was the son of a famous potter and had Navajo blood in his veins. Of the other outstanding masters of art of the period of this surge of creative energy, observed in the 20-30s. In the 20th century, one can name the Taoese Indians Chiu Ta and Eva Mirabal of the Taos pueblo, Ma Pe Wee of the Zia pueblo, Rufina Vigil of Tesuke, To Powe of San Juan, and the Hopi Indian Fred Caboti. At the same time, a whole galaxy of artists from the Navajo tribe, known for its ability to quickly assimilate and original, original processing of creative ideas, came to the fore; here are the names of the most prominent of them: Keats Bigay, Sybil Yazzy, Ha So De, Quincy Tahoma and Ned Nota. Speaking of Apaches, Alan Houser should be mentioned. And, as if to top it off, at the same time, the Kiowas' own art school was created on the Plains with the financial support of white enthusiasts; George Kebone is considered the founder of this school. And the Sioux Indian artist Oscar Howey influenced the development of all Indian fine arts.

Today, Native American visual arts is one of the fastest growing branches on the tree of American sculpture and painting. The modern Indian artist is close to abstract and semi-abstract motifs, well known to him from traditional Indian patterns on leather items made of beads and porcupine quills, as well as on ceramics. Showing an ever growing interest in their past, Indian artists are trying to rethink the mysterious geometric images on ancient pottery and find new creative approaches and solutions based on them. They study such trends in contemporary art as realism and perspective in order to find their own original style based on them. They try to combine realism with fantasy motifs inspired by nature, placing them in a limited two-dimensional space, which once again evokes an analogy with the art of Ancient Egypt. Since ancient times, Indian artists have used bright, pure, translucent colors, often only the main components of the color scheme, while adhering to individual color symbols. Therefore, if, in the eyes of a white person, he sees only an ordinary pattern, then an Indian looking at a picture penetrates much deeper into it and tries to perceive the true message coming from the artist who created the picture.

In the palette of the Indian artist there is no place for gloomy tones. It does not use shadows and the distribution of chiaroscuro (what is called the play of light and shadow). You feel the spaciousness, the purity of the surrounding world and nature, the seething energy of movement. In his works, one can feel the boundless expanses of the American continent, which contrasts very strongly with the gloomy, closed and cramped atmosphere emanating from the paintings of many European artists. The works of the Indian artist can, perhaps, be compared, albeit only in terms of mood, with the life-affirming and open to infinity canvases of the Impressionists. Moreover, these paintings are distinguished by a deep spiritual content. They only seem naive: they have deep impulses from traditional religious beliefs.

In recent years, Native American artists have successfully experimented with the abstract movement of contemporary art, combining it with those abstract motifs, or at least appear to be so, found in basketry and ceramics, as well as similar motifs of religious signs and symbols. The Indians showed ability in the field of sculpture; they successfully completed extensive frescoes merging into each other and once again proved that in almost any form of modern art their talent and imagination can be in demand and in any of them they will be able to show their originality.

It can be concluded that, despite the general decline of traditional Indian art forms (although there are a number of very important exceptions to this trend), the Indians not only have not squandered their creative potential and have not lost their creative abilities, but are trying more and more actively to apply them, including in new, so far non-traditional directions for them. As the Indian people enter the 21st century. with hope and ever-increasing energy, interest will grow not only in individual Indian artists, but in Indians as a whole; to their spirit, to their attitude towards life and way of life. In turn, the art of the white man will only be enriched by absorbing the bright and unique identity of Indian art and the entire Indian culture.