The creation of images of new objects by a person is determined by the needs of her life and activity. Depending on the tasks facing it, some remnants of previous impressions are activated and new combinations of associated connections are formed. This process acquires varying complexity depending on the purpose, content and previous experience of the person.

The most elementary form of synthesizing new images is agglutination (from the Latin aglutinare - “gluing together”). This is the creation of an image by combining qualities, properties or parts of various objects. Such, for example, are the fairy-tale images of a mermaid - half-woman, half-fish; centaur - half-headed, half-horse; in technical creativity it is a trolleybus - a combination of the features of a tram and a car, an amphibious tank, combining the features of a tank and a boat, and the like.

The technique for creating new images is analogy.

The essence of the analogy technique is that again the image that is being built is similar to a really existing object, but in it a fundamentally new model of a phenomenon or fact is projected.

Based on the principle of analogy, a new branch of engineering arose - bionics. Bionics highlights certain properties of living organisms that become useful when constructing new technical systems. This is how many different devices were created - a locator, an “electronic eye” and others.

New images can be created using stress. This technique consists of deliberately tightening certain characteristics in an object, which turn out to be dominant against the background of others. Drawing a friendly cartoon or caricature, the artist finds something unique in a person’s character or appearance, unique to her, and emphasizes this with artistic means.

The creation of new images can be achieved by exaggerating (or diminishing) all the characteristics of an object. This technique is widely used in fairy tales and folk art, when heroes are endowed with supernatural powers (Nikita Kozhemyaka, Kotigoroshko) and perform feats.

The most difficult way to form imaginative images is to create typical images. This method requires long-term creative work. The artist creates preliminary sketches, the writer creates versions of the work. Thus, while painting the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” the artist Ivanov made about 200 sketches.

Imagination in artistic creativity can be illustrated by the statement of K. Paustovsky: “Every minute, every casual word and glance, every deep or playful thought, every imperceptible movement of the human heart, just like the flying fluff of a poplar or the fire of a star in night water - everything These are crumbs of gold dust. We, writers, have been mining them for decades, these millions of crumbs, collecting them unnoticed by ourselves, turning them into an alloy and from this alloy we forge our “Golden Rose” - a story, novel or poem."

The creative process is associated with the emergence of many associations; their actualization is subordinated to the goals, needs and motives that dominate the acts of creativity.

Practical activities have a great influence on the creation of imaginative images. While the created image exists only “in the head,” it is not always completely clear. By translating this image into a drawing or model, a person checks the reality of its existence.

The key to creating imaginary images is the interaction of two signaling systems. The relationship between the sensory and the linguistic, the image and the word takes on a different character in different types of imagination, depending on the specific content of the activity in which the creation of images is included.

Varieties of Imagination

The activity of the imagination can be characterized from the point of view of the participation of special volitional regulation in this process, depending on the nature of human activity and the content of the images it creates. Depending on the participation of the will in the work of imagination, it is divided into involuntary and voluntary.

Involuntary is such a representation when the creation of new images is directed with the special purpose of representing certain objects or events. The need for involuntary creation of images is constantly updated by various types of activities in which the individual is involved.

In the process of communication, the interlocutors imagine the situations and events in question. When reading fiction or historical literature, a person involuntarily observes real pictures that her imagination generates under the influence of what she read. Involuntary ideas that arise are closely related to a person’s feelings. The feeling is a powerful generator of vivid images of the imagination in cases where she is alarmed due to the uncertainty of expected events or, conversely, experiences an emotional uplift through participation in special events that are of vital importance to her.

Feeling fear and anxiety for people close to her, a person imagines images of dangerous situations, and when preparing for a pleasant event, she imagines an atmosphere of goodwill and respect from colleagues present.

An example of the spontaneous emergence of imaginary images is dreams. In a state of sleep, when there is no conscious control over mental activity, the remnants of various impressions stored in the brain are easily disinhibited and can be combined unnaturally and indefinitely.

The process of imagination can last arbitrarily when it is directed with the special purpose of creating an image of a certain object, a possible situation, or imagining or foreseeing a scenario for the development of events.

The involvement of voluntary imagination in the process of cognition is due to the need for conscious regulation of image construction in accordance with the task and the nature of the activity being performed. The arbitrary creation of images takes place mainly in human creative activity.

Depending on the nature of a person’s activity, his imagination is divided into creative and reproductive.

Imagination, which accompanies creative activity and helps a person create new original images, is called creative.

Imagination, which accompanies the process of assimilation of what has already been created and described by other people, is called reproduced or reproductive.

So, in a designer-inventor who creates a new machine, the imagination is creative, but in an engineer who, according to an oral description or drawings, creates an image of this machine, the imagination is reproductive.

Creative imagination is activated where a person finds something new - new ways of activity, creates new, original, material and spiritual works of value to society.

Products of creative imagination, their richness and social significance directly depend on the knowledge and life experience of the individual, her attitude to activity, her social position, and the like. An important role for the creative imagination is played by language, which is a means of understanding the creative concept and a tool of analytical and synthetic activity.

Reproductive imagery is the process of a person creating images of new things based on their verbal description or graphic representation.

The need to reproduce images of reality is constant and relevant in the life and activity of man as a conscious social being. The role of the reproductive imagination for human communication is very important, which largely determined its development. The linguistic description of phenomena always requires a person to create appropriate images.

Reproductive imagination is needed when reading fiction, working with textbooks on geography, biology, anatomy, and the like. Images of objects are also formed on the basis of their graphic description, for example in engineering, when using diagrams and maps. Creative imagination and reproductive imagination are closely related, constantly interacting and transforming into each other. This connection is manifested in the fact that the creative imagination is always based on the reproductive imagination, including its elements. On the other hand, complex forms of reproductive imagination contain elements of creative imagination. For example, in the work of an actor, the embodiment of a stage image is the result of the activity of creative and at the same time reproductive imagination.

Depending on the content of the activity, imagination is divided into technical, scientific, artistic and other varieties, determined by the nature of human work.

The artistic imagination has predominantly sensory (visual, auditory, tactile and other) images - very bright and detailed. Thus, I. Repin, painting the picture “The Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan,” wrote: “Their humor and noise make my head spin.” Flaubert said that he felt the sharp taste of arsenic in his mouth when he described the scene of Madame Bovary's suicide. Thanks to the brightness of sensual images, the artist and writer seem to directly perceive what is depicted in their works.

Technical imagination is characterized by the creation of images of spatial relationships in the form of geometric figures and structures, their easy dissociation and combination into new combinations, and imaginary transfer of them to different situations. Images of the technical imagination are often combined in drawings and diagrams, on the basis of which new machines and new objects are then created.

Scientific imagination finds its expression during the creation of hypotheses, conducting experiments, generalizations to create concepts. Fantasy plays an important role in planning scientific research, constructing an experimental situation, and predicting the course of the experiment. When building a scientific system, imagination is needed to complement the missing links in the chain of facts that have not yet been determined.

Fantasy is of great importance for the fruitful creative activity of a scientist. Without imagination, his work can turn into a pile of scientific facts, the accumulation of his own and others’ thoughts, rather than real progress in new inventions, ideas, and the creation of something fundamentally new in science.

A special form of imagination is a dream.

A dream is the process of a person creating images of the desired future. A dream is a necessary condition for the embodiment of creative ideas, when images of the imagination cannot be realized immediately for objective or subjective reasons. Under such circumstances, the dream becomes a real motivation, a motive for activity, thanks to which it becomes possible to complete the work begun. Without a dream, D.I. Pisarev noted, it would be impossible to understand what motivating force makes a person begin and complete extensive and tedious work in the field of art, science and practical life.

A dream is an element of scientific foresight, forecasting and activity planning. This function is convincingly manifested in artistic, creative activity, government, and social development. A striking illustration of this is the works of Jules Verne, in which he brilliantly foresaw the works of future technical thought - a submarine, a helicopter.

Dreams can be real, valid and unreal, fruitless. The effectiveness of a dream requires a condition for the embodiment of a person’s creative plans aimed at a real transformation of reality. Such dreams, in a certain sense, are the driving force behind a person’s actions and deeds, giving her more purpose in life, helping her fight difficulties and resist adverse influences.

Dreams can be empty, fruitless, “Manila”. Then they disorient a person, deprive him of a vision of real life prospects, push him onto the path of illusory satisfaction of his mental preferences, and make him unable to withstand the adversities of real life.

Only an active, creative dream has a positive impact on a person’s life; it enriches a person’s life, makes it brighter and more interesting.

Imagination creates new images by transforming known images of objects and phenomena. There are a number of ways to do this conversion:

1.Creation image about any parts of an object , its property or individual attribute. The basis of this process is analysis in the form of mental isolation of a part or property of an object, their abstraction from the whole with a specific cognitive or practical task (for example, Gogol’s “Nose”).

2.Hyperbolization is a way of creating an image of the imagination by exaggerating the entire image of an object or its parts, endowing the object with a significantly larger number of significant features compared to reality, exaggerating the forces and possibilities of action of the object. Often used in cartoons.

3.Miniaturization (understatement)) – a way of creating an image of the imagination by downplaying holistic images of objects from individual properties and psychological qualities. Sometimes there is a combination of miniaturization and hyperbolization, when techniques of both enlargement and reduction are simultaneously used in creating an image.

4.Accentuation (sharpening) is a technique for creating imaginative images by emphasizing certain properties, features, aspects of various phenomena. One of the forms of emphasis is the selection of one of the properties of the image, which is not only dominant, but also universal, unique, characterizing the image in its entirety (almost all the main characters of works of art, allegorism of images). Emphasis in artistic creativity, advertising, imageology is achieved through repeated repetition of any stable expressive features, which allows for individualization of the image and its unforgettableness.

5.Agglutination – a way of creating an image of the imagination by combining into a single system of ideas in a sequence (combination) that is different from our direct perceptions and experiences (mermaids, sphinxes, centaurs).

6.Schematization consists in excluding some properties or qualities inherent in a certain object or person. Speaking about the advantages of schematization, S.L. Rubinstein emphasized that the artist achieves the proper expressiveness of the object if he rids it of unnecessary, minor details that interfere with the perception of what is characteristic of the depicted object (a typical hero in typical circumstances).

7.Reconstruction of an object based on known fragments is essential in creative work. This technique is actively used by archaeologists, emergency specialists, etc. It is used in the restoration of historical figures from preserved remains (the work of M.M. Gerasimov on the creation of portraits of Ivan the Terrible, Tamerlane, etc.)

Types of imagination

Like any other mental cognitive process, imagination can be viewed from different angles. If we take into account the dominant importance of individual psychological components in the images of the imagination, then we must talk, for example, about emotional and intellectual imagination. If we take the connection between the images of the imagination and reality as the basis for the classification, then we need to talk about recreating and creative imagination.

According to the degree of activity of the subject of imagination, two types can be distinguished: active imagination, in which a person intends to use the results of imagination in practice, and passive, in which the goal of using the results of imagination is not set, and it itself can arise regardless of the desire of the subject.

Passive imagination in humans it is represented by two subtypes depending on the presence or absence of awareness of its occurrence.

So, passive intentional imagination (or dreams ) represent creation of imaginary images that are initially perceived by a person as unreal, impracticable, illusory, dream-like. However, passive intentional imagination is recognized by a person as his own and is formed under his conscious influence. Dreams usually occur in a person with weakened control of consciousness, often in a half-asleep state. In this case, control is manifested in the selection of fantastic paintings, and only those that would evoke the desired feelings in a person, accompanied by peculiar emotional states, figuratively called “sweet sadness.” These are paintings have a nice, but obviously unrealizable. The external expression of dreams is most often the prolonged immobility of a person with an emphasized apathy of posture. Reasons for the occurrence of dreams: dreams arise under the influence of peace, complacency and contentment; as a result of tedious work, long transitions, when a person’s consciousness becomes dull; under the influence of special stimuli (favorite music, etc.). No matter how realistic a dream may be, a person always distinguishes it from reality, which is how it differs from both hallucinations and illusions. Dreams appear without any support for perception, and therefore easily disappear when a person is exposed to any irritant.

Often in everyday psychology, dreams are considered synonymous with either a dream (“daydreaming”) or a daydream, but then it is defined as a “passive” dream, thereby emphasizing the initially unrealistic nature of the created image.

Passive unintentional imagination creates images in special states of a person or his body, when a person does not control the process of creating these images. Varieties of passive unintentional imagination are dreams and hallucinations. Under dream many scientists understand imaginary images that arise in a person during REM sleep and represent the creation of new images as a result of a combination of images retrieved from long-term memory and perceptual images received during the previous day.According to S. Freud and his followers , dreams – it is a symbolic expression of the unconscious for the conscious. Hallucinations – This a psychological phenomenon in which an apparent image appears in the absence of a real external stimulus outside the clouding of consciousness. This image is assessed by a person without criticism, as a truly truly existing object. The hallucinating subject is unable to renounce the internal conviction that at this moment he has sensory sensations, that the object he senses really exists, although this object does not affect him. This distinguishes a hallucination from an illusion, which distorts the image of an object that actually affects the senses. The causes of hallucinations can be organic (exposure to drugs, alcohol, toxic substances, temperature, lack of oxygen, etc.) and psychogenic (state of passion) in nature.

Active imagination also has two subspecies: recreating And creative . A feature of active imagination can be called the fact that it is basically conscious, occurring during the active activity of the subject’s thinking and is subordinated directly or indirectly to a conscious task - scientific, artistic, educational or practical.

Recreating imagination - this kind of imagination, in the course of in which new images arise based on the perception of descriptions, diagrams, drawings, musical notations, etc. His images are relatively new and usually the goal of this type of imagination is to create an image that is as close to the real thing as possible. This type of imagination plays a leading role in learning, allowing the student to understand its essence through the images of the phenomenon being studied.

Creative imagination represents such a type of imagination in which a person independently creates new images that have personal or social value. The main thing in the process of creative imagination is the modification and transformation of images, the creation of new synthetic compositions. Creative imagination is given direction by the conscious needs of practice and knowledge, as well as the ability to imaginatively foresee the results of one’s own actions. To prevent the imagination from turning into a fruitless game of the mind, the subject in activity must adhere to certain restrictive conditions. The latter include, firstly, taking into account the connection of the new image with existing reality. Therefore, it is useful when the combinatorics of visual elements of the image of creative imagination is regulated by abstract thinking, i.e. carried out according to the rules of logic. The second condition is to find out how original the images of the imagination are.

Creative imagination can create images that are subjectively new (“reinventing the wheel”) and objectively new (as a result of scientific or artistic activity).

Active imagination in a particular person can reach different levels. About level of imagination development can be judged by the content of the images, their vital significance for theoretical and practical activities, the long-term purposefulness of the images, their novelty, originality, etc.

A dream occupies a special place in the system of types of imagination. Dream - This the activity of imagination, manifested in the creation of optimistic plans, the implementation of which a person expects in the future. Of all the manifestations of active, voluntary imagination, the dream is especially strongly woven into human life. From early childhood to old age, a person constantly hopes for something, waits for something. A dream is a great motivating force that makes us work hard to achieve the desired results. As some dreams come true, others appear. A dream is different from creative imagination is as follows: 1) represents the creation of images of the desired future of the person himself; 2) not included in creative activity, i.e. does not provide an immediate and directly objective product in the form of a scientific invention, a work of art, a technical invention, etc.

Imagination and personality

There is a mutual connection between imagination and personal characteristics of a person. For different people, depending on their personality, the images of the imagination differ in brightness, degree of correlation with reality, vitality and truthfulness of these images. The ability to subordinate the imagination to the task at hand determines the organization or disorganization of the imagination process.

At the same time, various character traits of a person follow from the characteristics of the imagination and are formed on their basis. The lack of a lofty dream is due to prosaic. Insufficient correlation between imagination and reality leads to the development fantasy. Dreams can serve as the basis for daydreaming. Creative imagination is inseparable from spirituality, which, in turn, manifests itself either in poetry human nature, or in romance.

It is assumed that the imagination takes part in the formation of a person’s sensitivity, tactfulness, empathy and the ability to empathize with another person.

A dream is an image of the desired future, a motive for activity, a necessary condition for the implementation of human creative powers.

Recreating is the imagination that recreates images based on a description, on the basis of a text, a story, on the basis of previously perceived images.

With creative imagination, new images are independently created.

By the nature of the images, imagination can be concrete and abstract.

Specific operates with single, material images, with details.

Abstract operates with images in the form of generalized diagrams and symbols.

But these two types cannot be opposed, since there are many mutual transitions between them.

The value of the human personality largely depends on what types of imagination predominate in its structure. If creative imagination, realized in activity, predominates, then this indicates a high level of personal development.

One of the highest types of creative imagination is dream.

In this regard, a person’s dream is one of his meaningful characteristics. The dream reflects the direction of the personality and the degree of its activity.

The process of imagination is not purely arbitrary; it has its own mechanisms. To create fantasy images, a person uses a fairly limited number of techniques.

1. Combination- a combination of elements given in experience in new combinations (usually this is not a random set, but a selection of certain traits). This method is very common and is used in science, technical invention, art, and artistic creativity. A special case of combination is agglutination- “gluing” of various parts, properties that are not combined in real life.

Examples of agglutination include fairy-tale and fantastic images - a hut on chicken legs, a flying carpet, a mermaid, a centaur, an amphibian, etc.

2. Hyperbolization- exaggeration of the subject; change in the number of parts of an object and their displacement - dragons, multi-armed goddesses, Serpent-Gorynych, etc.

3. Accentuation- highlighting, emphasizing any features and aspects of an object or phenomenon. Accentuation is actively used by satirical writers and artists when creating friendly cartoons and expressive images.

4. Typing- a specific generalization, which is characterized by the identification of the essential, repeated in homogeneous facts and their embodiment in a specific image. Typification is widely used in art and fiction. For example, the image of “Hero of Our Time” M.Yu. Lermontov created, combining the typical features of his contemporaries, the image of Natasha Rostova, according to the memoirs of L.N. Tolstoy, includes typical features of his own ideal woman.

In addition to these techniques, the imagination also uses other transformations:

allegories(allegory, metaphor, etc.)

symbols, in which the fusion of image and meaning occurs.

// Comment on the following example from the perspective of the psychology of imagination.

The student expressed his understanding of the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov’s “The Cliff”: “A cloud is a fleeting joy that has visited a person. She warmed him up, left him with a good memory and flew away. And this person, after fleeting joy, feels his loneliness even more acutely...”

Name the techniques for creating imaginative images in the following examples:

“... monsters are sitting around the table: one with horns with a dog’s face, the other with a rooster’s head. An evil witch with a goat’s beard, here I am a prim and proud frame, there is a dwarf with a ponytail, and here is a half-crane and half-cat” (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”: Tatyana’s dream).

“...an old man: thin as winter hares. All white and a tall white hat with a band of red cloth. The nose is beaked like a hawk, the mustache is gray and long. And different eyes...” (N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'”).

“Even more terrible, even more wonderful: here is a crab riding on a spider, here is a skull on a goose neck, spinning in a red cap, here is a mill dancing in a crouch and crackling and flapping its wings” (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”: Tatyana’s dream).

“And then the nightingale whistles, but like a nightingale. He screams - a villain, a robber - like an animal. And whether it was from him or from the nightingale's whistle. And whether from him or from the cry of an animal. Then all the ant grasses are entangled, All the azure flowers are crumbling." (Epic "Ilya Muromets and the Nightingale the Robber").

Techniques for creating imaginative images. All processes of imagination are of an analytical-synthetic nature, as are perception, memory, and thinking.
Images of the creative imagination are created through various techniques. One of these techniques is combining elements into a holistic new image. Combination – This is not a simple sum of already known elements, but a creative synthesis, where elements are transformed, changed, and appear in new relationships. Thus, the image of Natasha Rostova was created by L.N. Tolstoy based on a deep analysis of the character traits of two people close to him - his wife Sofia Andreevna and her sister Tatyana. A less complex, but also very productive method of forming a new image is agglutination(from Latin agglluninary - to glue) - a combination of properties, qualities, parts of various objects that are incompatible in real life (mermaid, sphinx, centaur, Pegasus, hut on chicken legs). In technology, using this technique, an accordion, a trolleybus, an amphibious tank, a seaplane, etc. were created.
A unique way of creating images of the imagination is accentuation– sharpening, emphasizing, exaggerating any features of an object. This technique is often used in caricatures and cartoons. One form of emphasis is hyperbolization- a method of reducing (increasing) the object itself (giant, heroes, Thumbelina, gnomes, elves) or changing the quantity and quality of its parts (dragon with seven heads, Kalimata - the many-armed Indian goddess).
A common technique for creating creative images is typing– highlighting the essential, repeating in homogeneous phenomena, and embodying it in a specific image. For example, Pechorin is “... a portrait, but not of one person: it is a portrait made up of the vices of our entire generation in their full development.” A type is an individual image in which the most characteristic features of people of a class, nation or group are combined into one whole.
Techniques for creating new images also include schematization and specification. Schematization consists in smoothing out the differences between objects and identifying similarities between them. An example is the creation of an ornament from elements of the plant world.

Specification abstract concepts can be observed in various allegories, metaphors and other symbolic images (eagle, lion - strength and pride; turtle - slowness; fox - cunning; hare - cowardice). Any artist, poet, composer realizes his thoughts and ideas not in general abstract concepts, but in specific images. Thus, in the fable “Swan, Crayfish and Pike” by I.A. Krylov concretizes the thought in figurative form: “When there is no agreement among the comrades, their business will not go well.”

In technical, literary, and artistic creativity, the following techniques for creating images are most common: agglutination, hyperbolization, sharpening, typification, analogy.

Agglutination (gluing) lies in the fact that a new image is obtained by combining two or more parts of different objects. Examples: centaur, mermaid.

Hyperbolization– increasing or decreasing an object, changing the number of parts of an object. Examples: a boy with a thumb, a dragon with seven heads.

Sharpening– emphasizing any features in the image. Example: cartoons.

Typing– highlighting the essential in homogeneous phenomena and embodying it in any specific image. Example: Evgeny Onegin is a typical representative of his time.

Analogy constructing an image similar to a real thing. This is a way to create mechanisms based on a biological model. Example: creating hang gliders by analogy with pterodactyls.

Topic 8. Psychological characteristics of speech and communication.

8.1. Concept and functions of speech and language.

Speech is a form of communication that has developed historically in the process of practical activity of people, mediated by language.

Speech is the process of communication between people through language; special type of activity.

Language is a system of verbal signs that mediate mental activity, as well as a means of communication realized in speech.

Speech functions:

Significative – the ability of a word to denote, to name an object.

Generalization function – the word records the historically determined properties of objects and phenomena. A word denotes not only a single given object, but a whole group of similar objects and is the bearer of their essential characteristics.

Communicative – consists of transferring to each other certain information, thoughts, feelings.

Expressive – consists in conveying an emotional attitude to the content of speech and to the person to whom it is addressed.

Functions of the language.

Storage and transmission of socio-historical experience (along with material tools and products of labor).

Communication (communicative function).

Structure of speech activity

Speech involves the processes of generating and receiving messages for the purposes of communication or for regulating and controlling one's own speech.

Structure of speech activity:

The motivational stage is the presence of a need for communication.

Orientation for the purposes of communication, in a communication situation.

Orientation in the personality of the interlocutor.

Planning (in the form of internal programming) topics, communication style, speech phrases.

Implementation of communication.

Perception and assessment of the interlocutor's response.

Correction of direction and communication style.

Types of speech.

In psychology, speech is divided into external - oriented towards others, and internal, intended for oneself. In turn, external speech can be oral and written. Oral speech is divided into monologue and dialogic.

8.2.1. Inner speech and its features.

Inner speech is various types of language use outside the process of real communication.. This is a person’s conversation with himself, accompanying the processes of thinking, awareness of the motives of behavior, planning and management of activities.

Internal speech, unlike external speech, has a special syntax. This feature lies in the apparent fragmentation, fragmentation, abbreviation. The transformation of external speech into internal speech occurs according to a certain law: in it, first of all, the subject is reduced and the predicate remains with the parts of the sentence related to it.

The second feature is predicativeness. Its examples are found in the dialogues of people who know each other well, who understand “without words” what is being said in their conversation. They do not need to name the subject of conversation in each phrase or indicate the subject: they already know it.

The third feature is the peculiar semantic structure of internal speech:

a) the predominance of meaning over meaning. Meaning is understood as a set of all kinds of associations - facts that a given word revives in our memory. Meaning is the part of meaning that a word already endowed with a broad meaning in a language acquires in the context of a specific speech utterance.

b) agglutination- a kind of merging of words into one with their significant abbreviation. The resulting word seems to be enriched with a double meaning.

c) the meanings of words have different laws of merging and combining than the laws of merging meanings. Meanings seem to flow into each other and seem to influence each other. In inner speech, we can always express our thoughts and even entire arguments with one name.

8.2.2. External speech and its types.

External speech is communication between people using conversation or various technical means.

Oral speech. Occurs in changing conditions. It is distinguished by a reduced number of words and simple grammatical structure.

Dialogue speech- This is direct communication between two or more people. Dialogue is an exchange of remarks. Psychologically, dialogue is a simpler form of speech. Firstly, dialogue is supported speech: the interlocutor asks clarifying questions during the conversation and can finish the other person’s thought. This makes it easier for the speaker to express his thoughts.

Secondly, the dialogue is conducted with emotional and expressive contact between the speakers in the conditions of their mutual perception of each other. People talking influence each other with gestures, facial expressions, and intonation.

Thirdly, dialogue is situational. The subject being discussed is often given in perception or exists in joint activity. Speech arises, is maintained and ceases depending on changes in the subject or thoughts about it.

Monologue speech is a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of knowledge and thoughts by one person.

It unfolds in the form of a report, story, lecture, speech.

In monologue speech, compared to dialogical speech, the semantic side undergoes significant changes. Monologue speech is coherent, contextual. The main requirements for it are consistency and evidence.

Another condition is grammatically impeccable sentence construction. In dialogical speech, slips of the tongue, unfinished phrases, and inaccurate use of words are not so noticeable.

A monologue places demands on the tempo and sound of speech. In a monologue, tongue twisters, slurred pronunciation, and monotony are unacceptable. Expressiveness in a monologue should be created through the voice. A monologue presupposes stinginess and restraint of gestures so as not to distract the attention of the listeners.

Monologue speech in all its forms requires preparation.

Written speech characterized by the following features: clear design; complex compositional and structural organization; limited means of expression (italics, paragraph, etc.). Written speech requires detailed construction, systematic, logical, coherent presentation. Written speech places increased demands on mental activity. Written speech requires special mastery.

Communication and its structure

Communication– a complex and multifaceted process, including information exchange, people’s perception and understanding of each other, influencing each other, direct emotional contact, forming relationships and achieving mutual understanding.

There are three interconnected sides in communication:

informational the side of communication consists of the exchange of information, ideas, thoughts, feelings;

interactive the side is to organize interaction between people (for example, you need to coordinate actions, distribute functions);

perceptual The side of communication includes the process of communication partners perceiving each other and establishing mutual understanding on this basis.