The behavioral approach to leadership in brief. Theoretical analysis of various approaches to studying the phenomenon of leadership

3.5.2. Cost-effective approach

3.5.3. Income approach

16. LEADERSHIP TRAINING School of Public Administration. Kennedy University of Harvard University was established in 1936. It is now housed in several beautiful ivy-covered brick buildings about five miles from downtown Boston. This highest

Our Approach We will first introduce the MBV technique and then the practical application of the concept. The basic principles of MBV are discussed in the first four chapters. Chapter 1 defines MBV and traces its development from early management theories based on

Process Improvement: Traditional and Lean Approaches The traditional approach to process improvement looks first at local efficiencies – “look at the equipment, at the value-adding activities, and

The What, How, Who Approach The approach that Tom Hoffman took during his brainstorming session is used quite often today. It is known as the “what, how, who” approach and helps people find innovative solutions to problems, abandon traditional

Systems Approach The structure of an organization is often depicted in the form of a two-dimensional organizational chart, an example of which is presented in Chapter 8. These charts are quite useful models that help visually display the complex relationships between departments and people.

Contingent Approaches to Effective Leadership The failure of early researchers to establish the relationship between leadership style, satisfaction and performance clearly showed that other factors influenced it. To identify them, theorists went beyond

Research into leadership problems has a prominent place in foreign social psychology, mainly in American psychology. There are hundreds of articles and dozens of monographs devoted to the development of leadership theories and their application to the practice of various organizations.

Leadership is a relationship of dominance and submission, influence and following in the system of interpersonal relationships. In relation to an organization, this is a type of managerial interaction (between leader and followers), based on the most rational combination of sources of power for a particular situation to achieve the goal.

Leadership is a specific type of management relationship, which is based on the recognition of the special status of the leader, his personal qualities, qualifications or position. The process of influencing people from the position of their position is called formal leadership, with the help of their abilities, skills and other resources that people need - informal leadership. Although it cannot be denied that an effective leader (formal leader) influences people and leads them using the tools of informal leadership.

There are several approaches to the concept and study of leadership.

1. The personality approach (1930s) explains leadership by having a certain set of personal qualities common to all leaders. However, practice has not confirmed the presence of a standard set of qualities that leads to success in all situations.

2. The behavioral approach (1940-50s) considers leadership as a set of patterns of behavior of a leader in relation to subordinates.

3. The situational approach (early 1960s) argues that situational factors play a decisive role in leadership effectiveness, but does not reject the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics.

4. Modern approaches (1990s) postulate the effectiveness of adaptive leadership - reality-oriented leadership. It means the application of all known management styles, methods and ways of influencing people, in accordance with the specific situation. This allows us to interpret leadership not only as a science, but also as the art of management.

The behavioral approach indicates that effective leadership depends not so much on the personal characteristics of the manager, but on the adequacy of the situation of his behavior, level of qualifications and actions taken. The behavioral approach focuses on leadership style, which is understood as a set of characteristic techniques and methods used by the leader in the management process. Style reflects the degree to which a leader delegates authority to his subordinates, the type of power used, methods of working with the external environment, ways of influencing personnel, and the leader’s habitual manner of behavior towards subordinates.

The main behavioral models of leadership include the “X” and “Y” theory of D. McGregor, the leadership theory of K. Lewin, the continuum of leadership styles of R. Likert, the management grid of R. Blake and D. Moutan, the theory of E. Fleischman and E. Harris and etc.

1. Behavior focused on human relations (respect for the needs of employees, concern for staff development);

2. behavior focused on fulfilling production tasks at any cost (ignoring the needs and interests of subordinates, underestimating the need for personnel development).

One of the most common is the leadership theory of K. Lewin. She identifies three leadership styles:

Authoritarian - characterized by rigidity, exactingness, unity of command, prevalence of power functions, strict control and discipline, focus on results, ignoring socio-psychological factors;

Democratic - relies on collegiality, trust, informing subordinates, initiative, creativity, self-discipline, consciousness, responsibility, encouragement, transparency, orientation not only to results, but also to ways of achieving them;

Liberal - characterized by low demands, connivance, lack of discipline and exactingness, passivity of the leader and loss of control over subordinates, giving them complete freedom of action.

Situational approach: situational factors play a decisive role in effective management, but does not reject the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics.

The main situational theories of leadership are the leadership model of F. Fiedler, the path-goal approach of T. Mitchell and R. House, the life cycle theory of P. Ghersi and C. Blanchard, the decision-making model of W. Vroom and P. Yetton, etc.

Most situational models are based on the assumption that the choice of an adequate leadership style is determined by analyzing the nature of the management situation and identifying its key factors.

One of the first theories of the situational approach was the leadership model of F. Fiedler. She focused on the situation and identified three factors influencing leader behavior: the relationship between the leader and subordinates (the degree of trust and respect); task structure (labor regulation); power of the manager (volume of official powers).

This theory established two important facts related to providing effective leadership.

Task-oriented leaders produce higher group performance in favorable and unfavorable situations. Relationship-oriented leaders produce higher group performance in intermediate states;

The effectiveness of a leader depends both on the degree of favorableness of the situation and on the leadership style.

The life cycle theory of P. Ghersi and C. Blanchard is of great importance. It is based on the proposition that an effective leadership style depends on the “maturity” of the performers. Maturity is determined by the qualifications, abilities and experience of employees, the willingness to bear responsibility, the desire to achieve the goal, i.e. is a characteristic of a specific situation.

Analyzing various combinations of orientation to work tasks and human relationships, P. Ghersi and C. Blanchard identified the following leadership styles: ordering, training, participation in management (supportive) and delegation, corresponding to the levels of development of employees.

The theory establishes four leadership styles corresponding to the level of staff maturity:

High task orientation and low people orientation (giving directions);

Equally high orientation to the task and people (to sell);

Low task orientation and high people orientation (participate);

Equally low task and people orientation (delegate).

This theory states that an effective leadership style should always be different depending on the maturity of the performers and the nature of the management situation.

Situational leadership theories have important practical significance because they affirm the multiplicity of optimal leadership styles depending on the situation. Currently, the opinion is firmly established that the effectiveness of leadership is situational in nature and depends on the preferences, personal qualities of subordinates, the degree of their faith in their abilities and the ability to influence the situation. Leadership is also determined by the personality traits of the leader himself, his intellectual, personal, business and professional qualities. They are much more difficult to correct than, for example, decision-making techniques.

In each specific case, the actions of the manager must be determined by the specific situation. A leader who can take advantage of the situation will be effective. To do this, it is necessary to know well the abilities of subordinates, their capabilities to complete the task, and the limits of their influence on the performers.

In the process of completing a task, the situation may change, and this will require changing the methods of influencing subordinates, i.e. leadership style. Like management in general, leadership is to some extent an art, so a leader who is able to change his leadership style if necessary will be successful, i.e. focus on real production and environmental conditions.

Contemporary approaches to effective leadership include the concept of substitutes and influence amplifiers, self- and super-leadership, coaching style, transformational leadership and the charismatic approach.

In particular, transformational leadership and the charismatic approach have emerged in recent years based on attempts to articulate the qualities of leaders that give them an aura of special significance, exclusivity and magnetism, allowing them to carry people along with them. It has been found that those who follow charismatic leaders are highly motivated, able to work with enthusiasm and achieve meaningful results. This kind of leaders is especially necessary at critical stages of development, during the period of recovery from a crisis, the implementation of radical reforms and changes.

Modern management experts believe that leadership is always a certain social attitude. It should include at least four variables: leader characteristics; positions, needs and other characteristics of his followers; characteristics of the organization (its purpose, structure, nature of tasks to be performed); social, economic and political environment.

The personal qualities approach explains leadership by having a certain set of personal qualities common to all leaders. Based on an analysis of the results of twenty studies, over eighty such characteristics (physical, intellectual, personal, psychological) were identified. However, the most common characteristics that distinguish an effective leader from those he leads are ambition, energy, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, adaptability, ability and knowledge. These qualities are especially evident in famous, outstanding leaders (great man theory).

Psychologists have conducted many specific studies, the results of which indicate that very few personality traits are directly related to leadership effectiveness, and the interdependence found is usually quite weak.

The concept of “leader” translated from English literally means “leading,” going ahead,” “showing the way.”

Speaking about leaders, it is necessary to pay attention to the seemingly identical concepts of leader and manager in their relationship, similarities and differences. Slavic languages ​​are characterized by the use of the word

“manager”, in English the word “leader” is more often used. The difference between them is determined, first of all, by the emergence of power, or one might say authority, among the subjects in relation to whom these concepts are applied. If a leader is always promoted “from the bottom to the top,” then the leader, on the contrary, is promoted “from the top to the bottom,” as a rule, through appointment.

The phenomenon of a leader consists in recognizing the natural qualities of a person, his characteristics, and differences. Psychophysical properties, level of mental development, organizational talent, oratory, etc. can be taken into account here.

In ancient times, the study of leadership problems was reduced to the study of biographies of great people, to the question of the role of the individual in history. Initial research in the field of leadership theories boiled down to attempts to systematize and classify the characteristic traits inherent in outstanding individuals. Some theorists have embraced the concept of a leader as someone with unique qualities that capture the imagination of the masses; others explained the leader phenomenon on the basis of hereditary factors.

Let's consider the main ideas and essence of the concepts within this approach:

T. Carlyle put forward the concept of a leader as a person with unique qualities that capture the imagination of the masses.

A. Wiggum argued that the reproduction of leaders depends on the level of relatedness of the ruling classes, because their offspring appeared and appear as a result of healthy marriages between aristocratic families.

J. Dowd believed that individuals in every society differ significantly from each other in their energy, abilities and moral strength.

R. Stogdill reviewed 124 studies and noted that the study of personality traits in leaders continues to produce conflicting results. I came to the conclusion that a person becomes a leader only due to the fact that he possesses a certain set of personal properties.

Thus, the American researcher K. Bird compiled a list that included initiative, sociability, sense of humor, enthusiasm, confidence, kindness, and friendliness. Later, R. Stockdill added vigilance, popularity, eloquence, etc. Although none of the traits occupy a significant place in the characteristics of a leader, they are present in the characteristics of a leader.

According to Maxwell, a potential leader must have a positive outlook, serve the common interest, have the potential for growth and be consistent and dedicated: be flexible, decent, open-minded, disciplined and show gratitude to the organization and people. However, guided by one of the basic principles of social psychology about the significance of the social situation, it is not enough to consider the effectiveness of a leader, taking into account only personality traits. There are several theories of leadership that focus simultaneously on the personal qualities of the leader and the situation in which he acts.

E. Borgatta created the theory of leadership of the so-called “great man”. He found that, as a rule, the one with the highest intelligence score receives the highest assessment from group members.

R. Cattell, G. Stice identified 4 types of leaders based on an analysis of their characters, and came to the conclusion that a leader should be sought among people with integrity of character, or the power of the “Super-I”.

J. Cotter, D. Neidler, R. Hackmann, E. Lawler came to the conclusion that people are more often influenced by those who have character traits that they admire, who are their ideals and whom they would like to imitate.

E. Hollander considered Weber's theory of charismatic leadership to be one of the early versions of trait theory.

Research has suggested that if a leader is endowed with certain traits and character traits that distinguish him from other individuals, then there are likely ways to highlight these characteristics. True, there is no denying the fact that a leader must have several basic traits, such as initiative, self-confidence, honesty, and intelligence. However, studies of the personal qualities of leaders have yielded conflicting results. As a result, the existence of a universal set of qualities inherent in outstanding leaders has been called into question.

One of the early theories is “trait theory” (personality theory of leadership), sometimes called “charismatic theory”, from the word “charisma”, i.e. "grace", which in various systems of religion was interpreted as something that descended on a person. comes from the provisions of German psychology of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. and focuses on innate leadership qualities.

Let's consider the relationship between personal characteristics and leadership:

1. Leaders usually have slightly higher intelligence than their “flock.” Under no circumstances should a leadership applicant be separated from the average intellectual level of his followers. A highbrow intellectual can take the place of a close assistant, a sage, a secret adviser to the leader, and, at best, an eminence grise. But the “path to the throne” is most often denied to him.

2. Motivation of power. Many leaders are driven by a strong desire for power. They have a strong concentration on themselves, concern for prestige, ambition, and excess energy. Such leaders, as a rule, are better socially prepared, show greater flexibility and ability to adapt. Lust for power and the ability to intrigue help them stay afloat for a long time.

3. A study of historical records showed that among 600 known monarchs, the most famous were either very highly moral or extremely immoral individuals.

4. There is a small positive relationship between a person's height and the likelihood that he will become a group leader.

6. There is very little evidence that traits such as charisma, courage, dominance, or self-confidence are indicators of a person's effectiveness as a leader.

Thus, the relationship between personal characteristics and leadership abilities can be found. But in general, it is very difficult to predict how good a leader a person will be just based on their personality traits. Therefore, over time, researchers began to come to the conclusion that it is not enough to look at personality traits alone. It is also necessary to take into account the situation in which these traits appear.

In general, the leadership model can be represented as follows:

1. The leader forms a vision, sets goals and objectives. A leader must not only be aware of this vision for himself, but also be able to motivate people to achieve goals, be able to explain why it is important, why it is needed and what it will give in the future.

2. The leader is always in the field of the system: environment and information. The ability to manage this field is one of the most important skills of a leader. To live in a non-fictional reality and dream only with dreams, and also to objectively measure your ideas, plans, thoughts with the surrounding reality. Be able to isolate the necessary information from a continuous flow of information, recognize useful signals and transform them into goals. Do not catch your chance, but methodically create all the conditions for its appearance.

4. The very core of leadership is, first of all, determined by the leader as a person. But to attract people, a leader must have charisma. As mentioned above, a charismatic leader in itself is attractive to others. They want to imitate and follow such a leader. It's hard not to notice him in the crowd. Therefore, charisma is an integral part of a true leader. It is not for nothing that this phenomenon is given such great importance in politics, where charisma is formed with the help of special political technologies.

5. In addition to charisma, a leader must convey the right beliefs and inspiring ideas. This gives others food for thought, fills the leader like a vessel from the inside, creates an internal core, support. People understand that behind the words and the outer shell there is a specific deed, a specific thought, and inner conviction.

6. A leader must have a certain set of qualities and skills that allow him to expand his field of influence. Entire phenomenological theories are built on the characteristics and qualities of a true leader. There are a huge number of traits that are necessary for a leader. In various studies there are dozens, hundreds of them.

A leader is considered a person who has the greatest authority and recognition in his group and is able to lead other people. The leader is not appointed, he is nominated himself thanks to his personal qualities.

The first studies tried to identify those qualities that distinguish the “great people” in history from the masses. Researchers believed that leaders had some unique set of qualities that were fairly stable and did not change over time, which distinguished them from people who did not become leaders.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the American sociologist E. Bogardus listed dozens of qualities that a leader should have - a sense of humor, tact, the ability to foresee, the ability to attract attention, the ability to please people, the willingness to take responsibility, etc. He believed that what makes a person a leader, first of all, are qualities such as intelligence, energy, and character.

R. Dilts identifies the following key qualities of a modern leader:

1. Vision. A true leader must be able to look forward. He must be able to foresee the future and, based on his vision, guide his team forward towards the goal.

2. Motivation. A leader must be able to stimulate himself and his team. A leader must be able to inspire and motivate others to action.

3. Recognition of weak signals (sensitivity).

4. Flexibility in behavior. A leader must be able to react not only quickly, but also have different behavioral strategies.

The following leadership qualities are also most important: determination, internal integrity, systematic thinking, curiosity, activity, initiative, desire for more, organization, consistency, communication skills, building trust, self-control, courage, ability to speak, persuade, ability to hear and listen.

P. Drucker collected his own set of qualities inherent in a leader: ambition, the ability to analyze, weigh the situation, make the right choice, resolve differences and organize. A leader needs the ability to take quick and decisive action, to make bold, intuitive decisions. A leader needs assertiveness, scope, imagination, a sense of the new, initiative, the ability to understand people, and a sense of responsibility. He must be tough when necessary, and be able to learn from his own mistakes. A leader must listen, be objective, control himself, be a man of his word, accept criticism, think long-term, not get carried away by details, not miss the point, and remain confident in the face of uncertainty. He must have modesty, not hesitate to ask for advice from knowledgeable people, be eloquent, charming, and energetic. He needs to have a “commercial sense”, feel the weaknesses of competitors, foresee the future situation, be able to establish contacts and skillfully negotiate.

The leaders of successful corporations, writes sociologist W. Packard, have developed a standard for the appearance of a manager capable of inspiring respect and trust in others. Healthy appearance, friendly open expression, inexpensive gray suit, simple manners. It is desirable that he be tall and slender. The chin, of course, is strong-willed, which is of particular importance.

Sociologist Batton counted fifty qualities necessary for an ideal leader, and among them, the main one, in his opinion, is acting ability. K. Baird, summarizing 20 studies, named 79 traits characteristic of a leader.

But it turns out that there is not a single feature about which all authors would agree.

It is clear that many of these properties are useful for any person, no matter what goals he sets on his life path. Some of these qualities truly distinguish successful individuals. In many ways, these people are similar and meet a certain spontaneously formed standard. But usually they are strong in one thing and weak in another. Most successful individuals do not possess many of the listed qualities, and all the advantages cannot be combined in one person. Moreover, all these advantages are no less common among people who have not succeeded in anything.

According to G. Allport, of the 17,000 definitions used in English to describe a person, almost every one can be used to characterize a leader.

From all that has been said, an important practical conclusion follows. There are no specific personality traits that guarantee success. People of all different strengths can achieve success, and this should inspire confidence in all of us. The main thing is not the presence of standard advantages, but the skillful use of one’s own individual qualities.

One of the most important characteristics of a leader can be the implementation of all these skills and abilities in behavior. Any word must be embodied in actions and deeds.

Under the leadership qualities of leader V.N. Kodin understands the totality of his psychological qualities, abilities and characteristics of interaction with the group, ensuring the success of his leadership functions.

The list of qualities interpreted by various researchers as leadership qualities can be continued for a long time. However, the longer the list becomes, the less practical use it has. There is no doubt that a leader must still have some qualities that distinguish him from other members of the group. The list of these qualities must be compiled based on situational variables, among which are:

Social and demographic characteristics of the group.

Specifics of the tasks to be solved.

Features of professional interaction, etc.

Based on an analysis of scientific literature and an empirical study of the leadership qualities of cadet group commanders, V.N. Kodin identified a general structure of leadership qualities of an organizational leader.

1. Individual and personal qualities

Knowing and feeling yourself. A leader needs to know himself well, be able to listen to himself, his feelings and emotions. Feeling oneself, knowing what a person likes and doesn’t want are important elements in the formation of an adequate self-concept, helping to navigate the path of life and understand other people. This idea was developed by W. Bennis, noting that knowledge of one’s strengths and weaknesses and loyalty to one’s principles are important qualities of a leader.

Self confidence. An adequately high level of leader self-esteem, combined with self-confidence, increases his determination in critical situations and helps him take risks when necessary. Self-confidence allows a leader to push the boundaries of his capabilities and gain new experiences. This idea was substantiated by B. Bass, who in 1981 analyzed ten leading studies on leadership and confirmed that a leader’s sense of self-confidence, as well as the level of self-esteem, is significantly higher than that of followers.

Active life position and desire for leadership. An active life position allows the leader to be in the center of events, which is necessary for adequate orientation in the situation. The desire for leadership and achievement is a factor necessary for self-development and self-improvement of a leader. This idea is supported by Stephen Covey.

Moral normativity, reliability, consistency in actions. The leader is the bearer of the norms and values ​​of the group, therefore his behavior and worldview must be consistent with the norms of universal morality - justice, honesty, responsibility, reliability and consistency in actions. B. Nanus called this quality of a leader “high honesty and integrity of character.”

Developed leadership self-concept. The leader’s worldview and the nature of his interaction with followers are largely determined by the leader’s self-concept, which includes a system of ideas about oneself as a leader and one’s own leadership role in interaction with others.

2. Organizational and managerial qualities

Focus on the future and vision of the future. In order for a leader to lead a group, he himself must know where to go. To do this, he needs to see the prospects for the group’s activities. W. Bennis called this quality “guiding vision.”

Sensitivity to the situation and flexibility of behavior. A leader is often a participant in a complex process and is in an “arena” where a huge number of different forces are at work, many of which are sometimes beyond his knowledge, understanding and control at the moment. Therefore, sensitivity to the situation, the ability to quickly navigate it and make the right decision are necessary for an organizational leader. Max DePre called a similar quality “situational insight.”

Ability to build a team. An important quality of an individual that determines the success of his development as a leader is the ability to attract others to himself (creative programs, ideas, ideals) and create a team of like-minded people. Forming corporate goals and values, as well as monitoring followers’ commitment to them, are among the most important tasks of a leader. - B. Nanus called a similar quality of a leader in a broader form as “the ability to build an organization.”

Ability to organize a group to solve a given problem. This quality is one of the fundamental ones for an organizational leader. It includes the ability to distribute functions among group members, the ability to motivate and inspire them to complete a task, coordinate work, etc.

The ability to control the results of joint activities, thank and encourage. This quality also ensures that the organizational leader successfully performs the relevant management functions.

Willingness to support in difficult times. The leader's reluctance to provide support to the follower in cases where it is very significant and he is able to do so, as a rule, deprives him of his leadership status and followers. This effect is derived from the phenomenon of F. Heider, according to which, if a leader is perceived as a person capable of achieving a result, but does not do this due to obvious lack of will or reluctance, then he is more likely to lose followers compared to a leader who is unable to achieve the desired , but making clear efforts to achieve the goal.

3. Social and psychological qualities

Interpersonal sensitivity, the ability to understand the needs of other people. Leadership is a social phenomenon and people-oriented, so seeing other people, feeling their aspirations, problems and concerns, as well as understanding the leader-follower relationship largely determines the success of an organizational leader. The importance of this quality was pointed out by James O'Toole.

Communicative competence. The ability to quickly establish contacts with people and feel confident in a team is an important quality of a leader and ensures the success of his organizational and managerial activities. John Gardner called a similar quality “people skills.”

The ability to create conditions for self-realization of followers. The ability to create conditions for self-realization of followers is the basis for building trust in the leader and the willingness of followers to follow him.

Justice. The leader acts as the coordinator of relationships in the team and must be objective and fair in assessing the actions and actions of other people.

The ability to represent and defend the interests of the group in external authorities, to take responsibility for group activities. The leader is a representative of the group, therefore the ability to represent and defend the interests of the group in external authorities, and to take responsibility for intra-group activities is an important quality of an organizational leader. John Gardner justified the need for a leader of similar quality.

4. Perceptual and leadership qualities

The presence of the above qualities constitutes the leadership potential of an organizational leader, but their possession does not necessarily transform an individual into a leader. Each of them can be significant and useful both for a leader and for any person striving for success in life. In our opinion, the qualities that can be considered exclusively leadership are those that the group imparts to the leader. In accordance with this, the following become of particular importance: the perception of the individual by the group as a leader; recognition of his leadership status and authority; the presence of followers ready to follow the leader; the presence of personal expectations among group members from the leader’s activities; delegation of part of personal activity by group members to the leader, etc.

It can be argued that if a group does not endow an individual with these qualities, then he is not a leader in this group, which is consistent with the ideas developed in attributional theories of leadership.

The glaring shortcomings of trait theory prompted the formation of a new approach to the phenomenon of leadership. Since studies of different groups did not give the same results about the traits of the leader, it could be assumed that the character of the leaders of such social groups cannot be the same. Leadership has increasingly come to be seen as a function of the situation.

The situational direction in social psychology, originally developed by behaviorists, was taken up by both neo-Freudians and interactionists. In empirical research, the leader is increasingly being viewed in terms of the role he plays in the group.

It cannot be said that situationism completely excludes the idea of ​​the leader’s personality traits, developed in trait theory. Some researchers believe that certain leadership traits simply vary depending on the situation. According to A. Goldiner, situationism does not deny that personality traits play a big role, but believes that leadership “is a product of the situation in individual groups.”

Situationists point out that leadership in a group will be different in each situation, that in a certain situation one person can become a leader, in another situation someone else can become a leader.

Trait theory also does not satisfy another group of social psychologists. They believe that this theory, by focusing on the personality of the leader, ignores the second, in their opinion, more important side of the leader-follower relationship. The group itself chooses a leader who satisfies its interests; the leader, in essence, is nothing more than an instrument of the group, they argue. Therefore, the “secret of the leader” is not in himself, but in the demands of his followers. “It is the follower who perceives the leader, the situation and ultimately accepts or rejects the leader,” notes F. Enford.

From all that has been said, it is quite obvious that various approaches to the problem of leadership can only be applied to a limited extent to groups and to situations of pedagogical influence (if you like, interaction). Although in the last years of the last century, works devoted to management and leadership in the field of education and education appeared, their authors, as a rule, wittingly or unwittingly adhere to one or another approach that has developed in the study of leadership in the political, military, and industrial spheres.

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1. Introduction

2. Personal qualities position approach

3. Behavioral approach to leadership, theories of behavioral approach

3.1 D. McGregor's theory

3.2 Lewin's research

3.3Fiedler's theory

3.4 Mitchell-House theory

3.5 Life cycle theory

4. Conclusion

5. References

1. Introduction

Nowadays, many businesses have become so cumbersome that workers are losing the opportunity for human contact with their employers. In some manufacturing industries, a high degree of automation means that workers lack, for example, a sense of satisfaction and ownership of the product they worked to create. Many workers do not even have any idea for what purpose the buyer is using their product. The robotic nature of much of their work prevents them from developing a sense of self-worth. In the words of the great Russian writer Fyodor Dostoevsky, “if it were necessary to reduce a person to complete insignificance, it would be enough to entrust him with completely useless work.”

Human relations are in many ways nothing more than the manifestation of good will and common sense in practice. To a large extent, the success of an entrepreneur in the field of human relations depends on such things as making a pleasant workplace in a supermarket or an attractive job in a factory. Entrepreneurs often ignore these simple things, especially when their business is still expanding. At the initial stage of entrepreneurship, they, as a rule, are forced to take care only of themselves, and perhaps of their small staff. A strong consciousness of a single goal binds the owner of the enterprise and the staff together. But as new employees appear, this connection gradually weakens if the entrepreneur himself does not pay due attention to the so-called human problems.

The stamp of futility lies on many types of labor performed in factories, department stores and offices. Many workers feel as if they are at the mercy of giant, faceless machines that rob them of their sense of self-worth and individuality. Because of this degradation of the human spirit, the science of human relations was born, which should look for ways to revive the sense of self-usefulness among workers and thus contribute to increasing the productivity of their work. One of the principles of human relations states that "a person's life can be made more enjoyable if his work is more meaningful."

2. Approach from the perspective of personal qualities

Management, leadership became the object of research when at the beginning of the A The twentieth century began to study management for the first time. However, it was only between 1930 and 1950 that the first attempt was made leadership study in cru P on a large scale and on a systematic basis. These early studies aimed to identify the attributes or personality characteristics of effective people. at leaders. According to the personality theory of leadership, also defined by O rum common to all personal qualities. Developing this idea, it can be argued that if these qualities could be identified, people could learn to educate s internalize them and thereby become effective leaders. Nekot O Some of these studied traits are level of intelligence and knowledge, impressive appearance, honesty, common sense, initiative, social and economic education and a high degree of confidence. n ness in yourself.

In the 40s, scientists began to studyь collected facts about the relationship between personal qualities and leadership. Unfortunately, despite hundreds of studies, there is no consensus on the set of qualities that necessarily distinguish a great leader. In 1948, Stogdill conducted a comprehensive review of leadership research, noting that the study of personality traits continued to produce conflicting results. He found that leaders tended to be distinguished by intelligence, desire for knowledge, reliability, responsibility, activity, social participation and socioeconomic status.

However, Stogdill also noted that effective leaders exhibited different personal qualities in different situations. He then made a conclusion that today's behavioral scientists would agree with: "A person does not become a leader just because he has a certain set of personal characteristics."

The conclusion is that there is no such set of personal qualities that is inherent T is common to all effective leaders and is often cited as evidence A evidence that leadership effectiveness is situational in nature. ABOUT d However, Stogdill himself believes that his point of view does not sufficiently highlight his personal T new nature of leadership. He argues that there is strong evidence that different situations require h personal abilities and qualities. While he does not call for a return to a personality approach to leadership, Stogdill concludes that “structure at Rare personal qualities of a leader must be correlated with the personal qualities, activities and tasks of his subordinates n "

3. Pbehavioral approach to leadership, behavioral approach theories

The important contribution of the behavioral approach to leadership theory is that it helped to analyze and classify leadership styles, i.e. how a leader behaves with his subordinates. Leadership style in the context of management is the habitual manner in which a leader behaves towards subordinates in order to influence them and motivate them to achieve the goals of the organization. The degree to which a manager delegates his authority, the types of power he uses, and his or her concern primarily with human relations or primarily with task accomplishment all reflect the leadership style that characterizes that manager. According to the traditional classification system, a style can be autocratic (one extreme) and liberal (the other extreme), or it can be a work-centered style and a person-centered style.

3.1 Theory D. McGregorA

An autocratic leader is authoritarian in management management. An autocratic leader has sufficient power to impose his will on the performers, and when necessary, he does not hesitate to resort to this. The autocrat deliberately appeals to the needs of the lower level of his subordinates And based on the proposition that this is the very level at which they op e riyut. Douglas McGregor, a renowned leadership scholar, called d the premises of an autocratic leader in relation to employees by theory “X”. According to Theory X:

People initially do not like to work and avoid work whenever possible.

People have no ambition, and they try to get rid of responsibility, preferring to be led.

What people want most is security.

To get people to work, it is necessary to use coercion, control and the threat of punishment.

Based on such initial assumptions, an autocrat usually centralizes authority as much as possible, structures the work of subordinates and gives them almost no freedom in decision-making. The autocrat also closely manages all work within his competence and, in order to ensure that the work is completed, can apply psychological pressure, as a rule, threats. When an autocrat avoids negative coercion and uses rewards instead, he or she is called a benevolent autocrat. He takes active care of the mood and well-being of his subordinates. He or she may even go so far as to allow or encourage their participation in task planning. But he or she retains the actual power to make and execute decisions.

The ideas of a democratic leader about employees are different from the ideas of an autocratic leader. McGregor called them Theory Y:

Labor is a natural process. If conditions are favorable, people will not only accept responsibility, they will strive for it.

If people are committed to organizational goals, they will use self-direction and self-control.

Involvement is a function of the reward associated with goal achievement.

The ability to creatively solve problems is common, and the average person's intellectual potential is only partially utilized.

Because of these assumptions, the democratic leader prefers influence mechanisms that appeal to higher-level needs: the need for affiliation, purpose, autonomy, and self-expression. A democratic leader avoids imposing his will on his subordinates.

Organizations where the democratic style dominates are characterized by a high degree of decentralization of powers. Subordinates take an active part in decision making and enjoy wide freedom in carrying out tasks. Quite often, having explained the goals of the organization, the leader allows subordinates to define their own goals in accordance with those that he has formulated.

Because a democratic leader assumes that people are motivated by higher-level needs—for social interaction, achievement, and self-expression—he or she tries to make subordinates' responsibilities more attractive. In a sense, he or she is trying to create a situation in which people, to some extent, motivate themselves because their work is, by its very nature, rewarding. He or she tries to teach subordinates to understand the organization's problems, provide them with adequate information, and show them how to search for and evaluate alternative solutions.

3.2 Lewin's research

Perhaps the earliest research into the effectiveness of leadership styles was conducted by Kurt Lewin and his colleagues. This study was conducted before McGregor described managers in light of his Theories X and Y. Lewin's subjects were 10-year-old boys. These boys were divided into several groups and assigned to various clubs; each was headed by an adult who professed autocratic, democratic and liberal leadership styles. Subordinates are given almost complete freedom to define their goals and control their work. Authoritarian leadership is characterized by a high degree of personal power of the leader: the leader determines all the strategies of the group; no authority is delegated to the group. Democratic leadership is characterized by the sharing of power and the participation of workers in management; responsibility is not concentrated, but distributed. Liberal leadership is characterized by liberal participation of the leader; the group has complete freedom to make its own decisions.

In his famous study, Lewin found that authoritarian leadership got more work done than democratic leadership. However, on the other side of the scale were low motivation, less originality, less friendliness in groups, lack of groupthink, greater aggression towards both the leader and other group members, greater repressed anxiety, and simultaneously more dependent and submissive behavior. Under liberal leadership, the amount of work decreases, the quality of work decreases, there is more play, and polls show a preference for a democratic leader.

More recent studies have not fully supported the finding that autocratic leadership produced higher productivity but lower satisfaction than democratic leadership. However, research e Lewin's work provided the basis for other behaviorist scientists' search for a style of behavior that can lead to high productivity and a high degree of satisfaction.

3.3 Fiedler's theory

Fiedler's Situational Model of Leadership: Fiedler's model was an important contribution to the further development of the theory, as it focused on the situation and identified three factors that influence leadership behavior. These factors are:

The relationship between managers and team members implies the loyalty shown by subordinates, their trust in their leader and the attractiveness of the leader’s personality for performers.

The structure of the task implies the familiarity of the task, the clarity of its formulation and structuring, and not vagueness and lack of structure.

Position authority is the amount of legitimate power associated with an executive's position that allows the executive to exercise rewards, as well as the level of support provided to the executive by the formal organization. Fiedler believes that although each situation has its own leadership style, the style of a particular leader remains generally constant. Since Fiedler assumes that a person cannot adapt his leadership style to a situation, he suggests placing the leader in situations that best suit a stable leadership style. This will ensure the proper balance between the demands of the situation and the personal qualities of the leader, and this leads to high productivity and satisfaction.

Let's consider 2 potential situations. The first is the most favorable for the leader. In it, the task is well structured, the job authority is large, and the relationship between the leader and subordinates is also good, which creates maximum opportunity for exerting influence. In contrast, situation 2 is the least favorable because the job authority is low, relationships with subordinates are poor and the task is not structured. Interestingly, Fiedler's research suggests that the most effective leadership style at both extremes would be task orientation. This apparent inconsistency can be explained using a spoon. The potential advantages of a task-oriented leadership style are speed of action and decision-making, unity of purpose and strict control over the work of subordinates, but for the success of production, the autocratic style is initially an effective tool for achieving the goals of the organization, provided that the performers willingly cooperate with the leader. In this situation, a task-oriented leadership style would be most appropriate because the relationship between the leader and subordinates is already good. Therefore, the manager does not need to spend a lot of time maintaining these relationships. In addition, since the leader has significant power and the task is routine in nature, subordinates obey the leader's instructions and require little assistance. Therefore, the role of the leader in this situation is to say what needs to be done.

In the second situation, the leader's power is so small that the performers will almost certainly resist any influence as soon as the opportunity arises. Here the authoritarian style will be most effective, because it maximizes the direct control of the leader, which is absolutely necessary for the correct direction of the efforts of subordinates.

A leadership style that focuses on human relations is likely to enhance a leader's ability to exert influence. Showing concern for the well-being of subordinates would actually improve the relationship between the leader and subordinates. Provided that subordinates are motivated by higher-level needs, the use of this leadership style can enable the manager to stimulate personal interest in a particular job. This would be ideal because a self-managed workforce requires close, strict supervision and also minimizes the risk of loss of control.

Like all other models, Fiedler's model is not without flaws and will not receive full support from other theorists. By determining that a task-oriented leadership style would be best suited in the most or least favorable situations and that a person-oriented style would be best suited in moderately favorable situations, Fiedler laid the foundation for the future situational approach to management.

According to one of the authors, “Fiedler's situational approach is an excellent means of emphasizing the importance of the interaction between the leader, performers and the situation. His approach cautions against the simplistic view that there is one, optimal leadership style, regardless of circumstances. Moreover, evidence from numerous studies suggests that the situational approach can have practical implications for the selection, hiring and placement of managers. It is clear that the situational approach has made and continues to make significant contributions to the understanding of the concept of leadership."

3.4 Mitchell-House theory

Mitchell and House's path-goal approach. Another situational model of leadership, much like Fiedler's model and having much in common with expectancy theory related to motivation, was developed by Terence Mitchell and Robert House. The term “path-goal” refers to such concepts of expectancy theory as effort-performance, performance-results (reward), and the perceived value of reward in the eyes of the subordinate. Essentially, the path-goal approach attempts to explain the impact that a leader's behavior has on subordinates' motivation, satisfaction, and performance. According to this approach, a leader can encourage subordinates to achieve organizational goals and influence the path to achieving these goals.

Below are some ways in which a leader can influence the ways or means of achieving goals:

Clarification of what is expected of the subordinate.

Providing support, mentoring and removing blockages.

Directing the efforts of subordinates to achieve goals.

Creating in subordinates such needs that are within the competence of the manager, which can be satisfied.

Satisfying the needs of subordinates when the goal is achieved.

At the beginning, House considered two leadership styles in his model:

The supportive style is similar to the person- or human-relationship-oriented style.

We find this style in a friendly and easy-to-reach leader who is concerned about the status, well-being and needs of his subordinates.

The instrumental style is similar to the work or task oriented style.

This leadership style is manifested in the fact that subordinates are told what they want from them, they are given specific instructions on what and how to do, thereby making the role of the group leader clear to everyone.

Professor House later included two more styles:

The participative style is characterized by the leader sharing the information he has with his subordinates and using their ideas and suggestions to make decisions for the group.

The achievement-oriented style is characterized by setting rather intense goals for subordinates and expecting them to work to the fullest of their abilities.

Situational factors. The leadership style that is most appropriate to the situation and preferred by subordinates depends on two situational factors: the personal qualities of subordinates, as well as demands and influences from the external environment. When subordinates have a high need for self-esteem and belonging, the supportive style will be most appropriate. However, if subordinates have a strong need for autonomy and self-expression, they are more likely to prefer an instrumental style.

Another personal characteristic. Influencing choice according to Yu of the general leadership style is the conviction of subordinates that he or on joint O capable of influencing the external environment. Behavioral scientists are called s This characteristic is specified as a control point. At its core, point of control refers to the degree to which a manager has confidence that his or her actions T viii influence what happens to them. Individuals who believe that they actually influence their environment prefer leadership styles that involve learning. A power of subordinates in decision making. Those who believe that they have little influence T they believe in the events taking place around them, that these events are controlled by fate or fortune, they prefer authority R nal or instrumental style.

An achievement-oriented leadership style is considered more corresponding to situations where subordinates strive for a high level of output and are confident that they are able to achieve this level. A style focused on the participation of subordinates in decision making is more consistent with situations where subordinates seek to participate in the management process.

As with Fiedler's model, more research is required to substantiate the path-goal approach. Researchers in these areas generally find the results encouraging. However, “theory is not the final answer to the question of leadership effectiveness. This management phenomenon is so important and complex that it is unlikely that a universal approach to leadership will emerge in the coming years, if one is even possible.”

3.5 Life cycle theory

Paul Hersey and Ken Blanche developed a situational theory of leadership, which they called life cycle theory, according to which the most effective To tive leadership styles depend on the “maturity” of the performers. The maturity of individuals and groups implies the ability to take responsibility n self-behavior, desire to achieve a goal, and education and experience in relation to the specific task that needs to be performed l a thread.

Individuals and groups exhibit different levels of “maturity” depending on the task at hand. The manager determines this maturity by assessing the desire to achieve, the ability to take responsibility for behavior, as well as the level of education and past work experience. academic assignments. Based on this subjective assessment, the manager determines the comparative maturity of a particular person or group.

There are four leadership styles that correspond to a specific level of maturity of performers: “instruct,” “sell,” “participate,” and “delegate.” The first style requires the leader to combine a high degree of task orientation and a low degree of focus on human relationships. This style is called "giving directions"; it is suitable for subordinates with low maturity levels. This style is quite appropriate here because subordinates are either unwilling or unable to be responsible for a specific task and require appropriate instructions, direction and strict control.

The second style - "selling" - implies that the leader's style is equally and highly task-oriented and relationship-oriented. In this situation, subordinates want to accept responsibility, but cannot, because the region A give an average level of maturity. Thus, the leader chooses the behavior e task-oriented diction to give specific instructions to subordinates n knowledgeable about what and how to do. At the same time, the head of d keeps their desire and enthusiasm to complete the task under their own responsibility T venality.

The third style is characterized by a moderately high degree of maturity. In this situation, subordinates can, but do not want to, be responsible for completing the task. For a manager who combines a low degree of task orientation and a high degree - on human relations, the most suitable style would be one based on the participation of subordinates in decision making, because subordinates know what and how to do, and they do not need specific instructions. However, they must also be willing and aware of their involvement in the task. Managers can increase the motivation and ownership of their subordinates by giving them the opportunity to participate in decision making, as well as by providing them with assistance and without imposing any instructions. In essence, the manager and subordinates make decisions together, and this leads to greater participation and ownership.

The fourth style is characterized by a high degree of maturity. In this situation, subordinates both can and want to bear responsibility. Here, the delegation style is most suitable, and the leader’s behavior can combine a low degree of task orientation and human relations. This style is appropriate in situations with mature performers, because... subordinates know what to do and how to do it, and are aware of the high degree of their involvement in the task. As a result, the leader allows his subordinates to act on their own: they do not need any support or instructions, because they are capable of doing all this themselves in relation to each other.

Like other situational models, Hersey and Blanchard's life cycle model recommends a flexible, adaptive leadership style. But like other leadership models, it has not received universal acceptance.

4. Conclusion

manager management leadership behavioral

Leadership, like management, is to some extent an art. This may be the reason why researchers have failed to develop or substantiate any theory. We subscribe to the situational approach to leadership and believe that with appropriate training, leaders can learn to choose a style that suits the situation. In some situations, managers can achieve effectiveness in their work by structuring tasks, planning and organizing tasks and roles, and being caring and supportive. In other situations, the manager may consider it more appropriate to exert influence by allowing subordinates to participate to some extent in decision making, rather than structuring the conditions for carrying out work. Over time, these same managers will find it necessary to change style in response to changes in the nature of the task, the challenges facing subordinates, pressure from senior management, and many other factors specific to the organization.

Very few of those who choose a management career agree to stay in the same job for many years. Many actively seek promotion to positions of greater responsibility. A manager who has chosen a particular leadership style and strictly adheres to it because it has worked well in the past may not be able to lead effectively in another situation in a higher position where all his direct reports are achievement-oriented.

A similar situation can arise, as often happens, if a manager is transferred from a department with highly structured tasks to a department with unstructured, creative tasks. Of course, some people have a more structured personality than others, and they are less able to respond to various situations that require changes in behavior. Although further research is needed in this area, previous research has shown that effective leaders respond to situations flexibly, i.e. changing styles.

Managers who operate outside their home country must be especially aware of the cultural limitations of any one particular leadership style. Research shows huge differences between the leadership styles that are preferred in different countries. It provides food for thought, which is especially important in today's world of multinational corporations. Europeans are generally influenced by tradition and are more susceptible to autocratic leadership than Americans. On the other hand, although Japanese culture highly values ​​tradition and loyalty, the Japanese make extensive and effective use of employee participation in decision making.

A leader who wants to work as efficiently as possible and get everything he can from his subordinates cannot afford to use any one leadership style throughout his entire career. Rather, a leader must learn to use all the styles, methods, and types of influence that are most appropriate for a particular situation. If one were asked to name one “best” leadership style, it would be “adaptive,” or as Argyris so aptly puts it, “reality-based” style. Describing this reality-oriented style, Argyris notes that it: “develops in many directions. In addition, decision rules are developed that can serve as guidelines for how and when leadership styles should be changed.

If we analyze the relevant literature, it can be replaced that the leadership style considered "effective" varies depending on the situation... no one leadership style can be considered the most effective... Therefore, effective leaders are those who can behave differently depending on the demands of reality "

5. References

1. Vikhansky O.S. , Naumov A.I. Management. M., 2001.

3. Grove E.S. Highly effective management. M., 2003.

4. Duncan W.D. Fundamental ideas in management. M., 2000.

6. Karlof B. Challenge of leaders. M., 2003.

7. Land P.E. Management is the art of managing. M., 2001.

8. Meskon M., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of Management M. 2003.

10. Francis D., Woodcock M. The liberated manager. M., 2004.

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